Birth Certificate Argentina

Argentina, officially the Argentine Republic (Spanish: República Argentina, Spanish pronunciation: [re̞ˈpuβ̞lika aɾxẽ̞nˈtina]), is a country in South America, constituted as a federation of 23 provinces and an autonomous city. It is the second largest country in South America by land area, and eighth in the world. Its continental area is 2,766,890 km² (1,068,302 sq mi), between the Andes mountain range in the west and the southern Atlantic Ocean in the east and south. Argentina borders Paraguay and Bolivia to the north, Brazil and Uruguay to the northeast, and Chile to the west and south. Argentina also claimed 969,464 km² (374,312 sq mi) of Antarctica, known as Argentine Antarctica, overlapping other claims made by Chile (Chilean Antarctic Territory) and the United Kingdom (British Antarctic Territory); all such claims have been suspended by the Antarctic Treaty of 1961.

Argentina has the highest Human Development Index level and the second highest Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita in purchasing power parity in Latin America.^[8] Argentina's nominal GDP is the 31^st largest in the world;^[9] but when purchasing power is taken into account, its total GDP makes it the 23^rd largest economy in the world.^[10]^[11]

The country is currently classified as an Upper-Middle Income Country^[12] or as a secondary emerging market by the World Bank.^[13]^[14]

Etymology

Río de la Plata aboriginals (1603).

The name Argentina (from Latin argentum: silver) was first used extensively in the 1612 book Historia del descubrimiento, población, y conquista del Río de la Plata (History of the discovery, population, and conquest of the Río de la Plata) by Ruy Díaz de Guzmán, naming the territory Tierra Argentina (Land of Silver).^[15]^[16]

History

The Buenos Aires Cabildo, scene of the 1810 resolution that led to independence.

The earliest evidence of human presence in Argentina found thus far is in Patagonia (Piedra Museo, Santa Cruz) and dates from 11,000 BC (Santa María, Huarpes, Diaguitas and Sanavirones, among others). The Inca Empire under the rule of King Pachacutec launched an offensive in 1480 and conquered present-day northwestern Argentina, integrating it into a region called Collasuyu; in the northeastern area, the Guaraní developed a culture based on yuca and sweet potato. The central and southern areas (Pampas and Patagonia) were dominated by nomadic cultures, unified in the 17th century by the Mapuches.

Gen. José de San Martín, Liberator of Argentina, Chile and Peru.

European explorers arrived in 1516. Spain established a permanent colony on the site of Buenos Aires in 1580 and the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata was created in 1776. This area was largely a country of Spanish immigrants and their descendants, known as criollos, of native cultures and of descendants of African slaves (See:Afro-Argentines), present in significant numbers. A third of Colonial-era settlers gathered in Buenos Aires and other cities, others living on the pampas as gauchos, for instance. Indigenous peoples inhabited much of the rest of Argentina.

The British Empire launched two invasions of Buenos Aires in 1806-07; but the criollo population repelled both attempts. On 25 May 1810, after confirmation of the rumors on the overthrow of King Ferdinand VII by Napoleon, citizens of Buenos Aires created the First Government Junta (May Revolution). Two nations emerged in what is now Argentina: the United Provinces of South America (1810) and the Liga Federal (1815). Other provinces, as a result of differences between autonomist and centralist quarters, delayed taking part in a unified State; Paraguay seceded, declaring its independence in 1811.

Gov. Juan Manuel de Rosas during his 1829-52 regime.

Dalmacio Vélez Sársfield, whose 1869 Civil Code lay the foundation for Argentina's statutory laws.

Pres. Hipólito Yrigoyen, 1928. Patient activist for universal (male) suffrage and the country's first president so elected.

Military campaigns led by General José de San Martín between 1814 and 1817 made independence increasingly a reality. Argentines revere San Martín, who campaigned in Argentina, Chile and Peru, as the hero of national independence. General José de San Martín and his regiment crossed the Andes in 1817 to defeat royalist forces in Chile and Peru, thus securing independence. The Congress of Tucumán gathered on 9 July 1816 and finally issued a formal Declaration of Independence from Spain. The Liga Federal was crushed by forces of the United Provinces of South America in 1820 and some Portuguese brigades from Brazil and its provinces were absorbed into United Provinces of South America. Bolivia declared itself independent in 1825 and Uruguay was created in 1828 as a result of a truce following the Argentina-Brazil War. The controversial truce led to the rise of Buenos Aires Province Governor Juan Manuel de Rosas, who, as a federalist, exercised a reign of terror and kept the fragile confederacy together.

The Port of Buenos Aires (1900). Maritime trade led to accelerated development after 1875.

Pres. Julio Roca dominated politics and policy from 1880 to 1906.

The centralist Unitarios and the Federales maintained an internecine conflict until Governor Rosas' 1852 overthrow and, to help prevent future struggle during the tenous times that followed, a Constitution was promulgated in 1853. The Constitution, drafted by legal scholar Juan Bautista Alberdi, was persuasively defended in moving oratory by Franciscan Friar Mamerto Esquiú and endured through its first difficult years. National unity was reinforced by an 1865 attack on Argentine and Brazilian interests by Paraguay, resulting in the War of Triple Alliance and devastating Paraguay.

A wave of foreign investment and immigration from Europe after 1870 led to the development of modern agriculture and to a near-reinvention of Argentine society and the economy, leading to the strengthening of a cohesive state. The 1870s, however, also saw the "Conquest of the Desert", which subdued the remaining indigenous tribes throughout the southern Pampas and Patagonia and left 1,300 indigenous dead.^[17]^[18]

The era between 1880 and 1929 saw Argentina enjoy increasing prosperity and prominence while emerging as one of the 10 richest countries in the world, benefiting from an agricultural export-led economy. Driven by immigration and decreasing mortality, the Argentine population grew six-fold and the economy, by 15-fold.^[19] Conservative interests dominated Argentine politics through non-democratic means until, in 1912, Pres. Roque Sáenz Peña enacted universal male suffrage and the secret ballot. This allowed their traditional rivals, the centrist Radical Civic Union, to win the country's first free elections in 1916. Pres. Hipólito Yrigoyen enacted social and economic reforms and extended assistance to family farmers and small business; but, having been politically imposing and beset by the great depression, the military forced him from power in 1930. This led to another decade of Conservative rule, whose economists turned to more protectionist policies.

The country was neutral during World War II. Political change led to the presidency of Juan Perón in 1946, who worked to empower the working class and greatly expanded the number of unionized workers and of social and educational programs. Perón's wife, Eva Perón (better known as "Evita") played an important role as first lady during Perón's first two administrations. She was a driving force behind Perón's success among the working class and quickly became a phenomenon that is still researched today. Born into poverty herself, Evita never forgot the hardships her family endured during her childhood. In 1947, she created the Eva Perón Foundation, which provided for an array of services and needs to the working class and poor of Argentina, such as basic items like pots and pans, sewing machines and even fully furnished houses. The foundation built thousands of schools, hospitals, orphanages, and even Evita City, which still thrives today.

President Juan Perón (1946).

This was the first time the country had seen such a shift in attention to aiding the poor and it did not sit well with the oligarchy. Evita was seen as the "bridge of love" between Perón and the people. She championed women's suffrage and organized the Peronist Women's Party. Throughout Perón's first and second term as president, his economists encouraged accelerated industrial development, increasingly important since the 1920s. Following Evita's untimely death in 1952 at age 33, Perón's administration became increasingly distracted by struggles with the Roman Catholic Church. A violent coup deposed him in 1955 and he fled into exile, eventually residing in Spain.

Pres. Arturo Frondizi (2^nd from left) hosts Pres. Kennedy, 1961. Frondizi's policies encouraged foreign and local investment in energy and industry, making Argentina nearly self-sufficient in both.

Following an attempt to purge the Peróns' influence and the banning of Peronists from political life, elections in 1958 brought the more moderate Arturo Frondizi to office. Frondizi enjoyed some support from Perón's followers and his policies encouraged needed investment in energy and industry, both of which were chalking up sizable trade deficits for Argentina. The military, however, frequently interfered on behalf of conservative interests and the results were mixed; Frondizi was forced to resign in 1962 and, following two more civilian administrations weakened by military pressure, the armed forces retook power in a quiet 1966 coup. Though repressive, this new regime continued to encourage domestic development and invested record amounts into public works; during those years the economy grew strongly and income poverty declined to 7% by 1975, still a record low. Due in part to their repressiveness, political violence began to escalate and, from exile, Perón skillfully co-opted student and labor protests, which eventually resulted in the military regime's call for free elections in 1973 and his return from Spanish exile. Taking office that year, Perón passed away in July 1974, leaving his third wife Isabel, the Vice President, to succeed him in office. Mrs. Perón had been chosen as a compromise among feuding Peronist factions who could agree on no other running mate; secretly, though, she was beholden to Perón's most Fascist advisers. The resulting conflict between left and right-wing extremists led to mayhem and financial chaos and, on 24 March 1976, a military coup removed her from office.

Economist Martínez de Hoz and Pres. Videla, both of whose policies left a traumatic legacy in Argentina.

Raúl Alfonsín (left) greets supporters during the 1983 campaign with his trademark salute.

Pres. Leopoldo Galtieri's tragic 1982 invasion of the Falkland Islands cost Argentina lives and prestige.

The self-styled National Reorganization Process promptly repressed opposition and leftist groups using brutal, illegal measures (the "Dirty War"); thousands of dissidents "disappeared", while the SIDE cooperated with Chile's DINA, other South American intelligence agencies and with the CIA in Operation Condor. Many of the military leaders that took part in the Dirty War were trained in the U.S.-financed School of the Americas, among them Argentine dictators Roberto Viola and Leopoldo Galtieri. This new dictatorship at first brought some stability and built numerous important public works; but their frequent wage freezes and deregulation of finance led to a sharp fall in living standards and record foreign debt. Deindustrialization, the peso's collapse and crushing real interest rates, as well as unprecedented corruption, public revulsion in the face of human rights abuses and, finally, the country's 1982 defeat by the British in the Falklands War discredited the military regime and led to free elections in 1983. Raúl Alfonsín's government took steps to account for the "disappeared", established civilian control of the armed forces and consolidated democratic institutions. The members of the three military juntas were prosecuted and sentenced to life terms. The previous regime's foreign debt, however, left the Argentine economy saddled by the conditions imposed on it by both its private creditors and the IMF and priority was given to servicing the foreign debt at the expense of public works and domestic credit. Alfonsín's failure to resolve worsening economic problems caused him to lose public confidence. Following a 1989 currency crisis that resulted in a sudden and ruinous 15-fold jump in prices, he left office five months early.

Newly elected, President Carlos Menem began pursuing privatizations; but after a second bout of hyperinflation in 1990, reached out to Economist Domingo Cavallo, who imposed a peso-dollar fixed exchange rate in 1991 and adopted far-reaching market-based policies, dismantling protectionist barriers and business regulations and implementing vast privatizations. These reforms contributed to significant increases in investment and growth with stable prices through most of the 1990s; but the peso's fixed value could only be maintained by flooding the market with dollars, resulting in a renewed increase in the foreign debt. The peso-dollar parity also made imports a bargain again and left much local industry out of the era's prosperity; while part of the population was saving in dollars, traveling overseas and purchasing imported and luxury goods cheaply, the rest of the population experienced an increase in crime and unemployment. The IMF and economists in general praised the liberalization of the Argentine market and the country was presented as a "model student;" towards 1998, however, a series of international financial crises and overvaluation of the pegged peso caused a gradual slide into economic crisis. The sense of stability and well being which had prevailed during the 1990s eroded quickly and by the end of his term in 1999, these accumulating problems and perceived corruption had made Menem unpopular.

Brazilian Presidents "Lula" da Silva (since 2003) and Jose Sarney (1985-90) reunite with Argentine Presidents Néstor Kirchner (2003-07) and Raúl Alfonsín (1983-89) to commemorate 20 years of productive trade talks.

President Fernando de la Rúa inherited diminished competitiveness in exports, massive imports which damaged national industry and mounting social problems, as well as chronic fiscal deficits. The governing coalition developed rifts and was eventually forced to take a series of measures (culminating in the freezing of bank accounts) to halt a wave of capital flight and to stem the imminent debt crisis. A climate of popular discontent ensued and on 20 December 2001 Argentina dove into its worst institutional and economic crisis since the 1890 Barings financial debacle. There were violent street protests, which clashed with police and resulted in several fatalities. The increasingly chaotic climate, amid riots accompanied by cries that “they should all go,” finally resulted in the resignation of President de la Rúa.

Three presidents followed in quick succession over two weeks, culminating in the appointment of interim President Eduardo Duhalde by the Legislative Assembly on 2 January 2002. Argentina defaulted on its international debt and the peso's 11 year-old tie to the US dollar was rescinded, causing a major depreciation of the peso and a spike in inflation. Duhalde, a Peronist with a center-left economic position, had to cope with a financial and socio-economic crisis, with unemployment as high as 25% by late 2002 and the lowest real wages in sixty years. The crisis accentuated the people's mistrust in politicians and institutions. Following a year racked by protest, the economy began to stabilize by late 2002 and restrictions on bank withdrawals were lifted in December.

Current president Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, in office since December 2007.

Benefiting from a more competitive and flexible exchange rate, government and business planners alike implemented new policies based on re-industrialization, import substitution and increased exports, and began seeing consistent fiscal and trade surpluses. Governor Néstor Kirchner, a social democratic Peronist, was elected president in May 2003; during Kirchner's presidency, Argentina restructured its defaulted debt with a steep discount (about 66%) on most bonds, paid off debts with the International Monetary Fund, renegotiated contracts with utilities and nationalized some previously privatized enterprises. Kirchner and his economists, notably Roberto Lavagna, also pursued vigorous income policies and public works investments.

Argentina has since been enjoying economic growth; despite his popularity, Néstor Kirchner forfeited the 2007 campaign in favor of his wife, Senator Cristina Fernández de Kirchner. Winning in a landslide that October, she became the first woman elected President of Argentina and, in an upset, a center-left (ARI) candidate in Tierra del Fuego Province, Fabiana Ríos, became the first woman in Argentine history elected governor. President Cristina Kirchner, despite carrying large majorities in Congress, saw controversial plans for higher agricultural export taxes defeated by Vice President Julio Cobos' surprise tie-breaking vote against them on 16 July 2008. Following massive agrarian protests and lockouts from March to July, robust economic growth quickly returned, though inflation has also increased without, as yet, being addressed.

Politics

Government

The Casa Rosada, seat of the Executive branch.

Argentina's political framework is a federal presidential representative democratic republic, in which the President of The Argentine Nation is both head of state and head of government, complemented by a pluriform multi-party system. The current president (2007) is Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, with Julio Cobos as vice president.

The Argentine Constitution of 1853 mandates a separation of powers into executive, legislative, and judicial branches at the national and provincial level.

Executive power resides in the President and his or her cabinet. The President of The Argentine Nation and Vice President are directly elected to four-year terms and are limited to two consecutive terms. Cabinet ministers are appointed by the president and are not subject to legislative ratification.

The Argentine Legislature, Buenos Aires.

Legislative power is vested in the bicameral National Congress or Congreso de la Nación, consisting of a Senate (Senado) of seventy-two seats, and a Chamber of Deputies (Cámara de Diputados) of 257 members.

Senators serve six-year terms, with one-third standing for reelection every two years. Members of the Chamber of Deputies are directly elected to four-year term via a system of proportional representation, with half of the members of the lower house being elected every two years. A third of the candidates presented by the parties must be women.

The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. The Argentine Supreme Court of Justice has seven members who are appointed by the President in consultation with the Senate. The rest of the judges are appointed by the Council of Magistrates of the Nation, a secretariat composed of representatives of judges, lawyers, the Congress and the executive (see Law of Argentina).

Argentina is a member of an international block, Mercosur, which has some legislative supranational functions. Mercosur is composed of five full members: Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay and Venezuela. It has five associate members without full voting rights: Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru.

Argentina was the only country from Latin America to participate in the 1991 Gulf War under mandate of the United Nations. It was also the only Latin American country involved in every phase of the Haiti operation. Argentina has contributed worldwide to peacekeeping operations, including in El Salvador-Honduras-Nicaragua, Guatemala, Ecuador-Peru, Western Sahara, Angola, Kuwait, Cyprus, Croatia, Kosovo, Bosnia and Timor Leste. In recognition of its contributions to international security, U.S. President Bill Clinton designated Argentina as a major non-NATO ally in January 1998. It was last elected as a temporary member of the UN Security Council in 2005.

The United Nations White Helmets, a bulwark of peacekeeping and humanitarian aid efforts, were first deployed in 1994 following an Argentine initiative.^[20]

On 4 November-5 November 2005, the Argentine city of Mar del Plata hosted the Fourth Summit of the Americas. This summit was marked by a number of anti-U.S. protests. As of 2006, Argentina has been emphasizing Mercosur as its first international priority; by contrast, during the 1990s, it relied more heavily on its relationship with the United States.

Argentina has long claimed sovereignty over the Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas), the South Shetland Islands, the South Sandwich Islands and almost 1 million km² in Antarctica, between the 25°W and the 74°W meridians and the 60°S parallel. All of this area is also claimed and occupied by the United Kingdom, though for more than a century, there has been an Argentine presence at the Orcadas Base.

Argentina is a founding signatory and permanent consulting member of the Antarctic Treaty System and the Antarctic Treaty Secretariat is established in Buenos Aires.^[21]

Military

Libertador Building (Ministry of Defense and Army Headquarters) and the flagship Sarmiento frigate.

Argentina's armed forces are controlled by the Defense Ministry, with the country's President as their Commander-in-Chief. Historically, Argentina's military has been one of the best equipped in the region (for example, developing its own advanced jet fighters as early as the 1950s);^[22] but, of late, it's faced sharper expenditure cutbacks than most other armed forces in Latin America. Indeed, since 1981, real military expenditures have fallen by about half and are today less than US$3 billion.^[23]

The age of allowable military service is 18 years; there is no obligatory military service and currently no conscription. Recently, Argentina's armed forces have numbered about 70,000 active duty personnel, a reduction of over a third from levels before the return to democracy in 1983.^[24]

The armed forces are composed of a traditional Army, Navy, and Air Force. Controlled by a separate ministry (the Interior Ministry), Argentine territorial waters are patrolled by the Naval Prefecture and the border regions by the National Gendarmerie; both arms however maintain liaison with the Defense Ministry. Argentina's Armed Forces are currently undertaking major operations in Haiti and Cyprus, in accordance with UN mandates.

Provinces

Provinces of Argentina. Argentina claims the Falkland Islands ("Islas Malvinas"), a UK overseas territory, as well as a slice of Antarctica, both of which it assigns to its Tierra del Fuego Province (number 23).

Argentina is divided into twenty-three provinces (provincias; singular provincia), and one autonomous city (commonly known as the capital federal, but officially Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires):

Though declared the capital in 1853, Buenos Aires didn't become the capital of the country until 1880. There have been moves to relocate the administrative centre elsewhere. During the presidency of Raúl Alfonsín, a law was passed ordering the transfer of the federal capital to Viedma, a city in the Patagonian province of Río Negro. Studies were underway when economic problems halted the project in 1989. Though the law was never formally repealed, it is now treated as a relic.

Provinces are divided into smaller secondary units called departamentos ("departments"), of which there are 376 in total. The province of Buenos Aires has 134 similar divisions known as partidos. Departamentos and partidos are further subdivided into municipalities or districts.

In descending order by number of inhabitants, the major cities in Argentina are Buenos Aires, Córdoba, Rosario, Mendoza, Tucumán, La Plata, Mar del Plata, Salta, Santa Fe, San Juan, Resistencia and Neuquén.

Geography

Topographic map of Argentina (including some territorial claims).

Main features

The total surface area of Argentina (not including the Antarctic claim) is as follows:

Argentina is about 3,900 km (about 2,500 mi) long from north to south, and 1,400 km (about 870 mi) from east to west (maximum values). It can roughly be divided into four parts: the fertile plains of the Pampas in the center of the country, the source of Argentina's agricultural wealth; the flat to rolling, oil-rich plateau of Patagonia in the southern half down to Tierra del Fuego; the subtropical flats of the Gran Chaco in the north, and the rugged Andes mountain range along the western border with Chile.

The highest point above sea level in Argentina is located in Mendoza. Cerro Aconcagua, at 6,962 meters (22,834 feet), is the highest mountain in the Americas, the Southern,^[25] and Western Hemisphere.^[26] The lowest point is Laguna del Carbón in Santa Cruz, −105 meters (−344 ft) below sea level.^[27] This is also the lowest point on the South American continent. The geographic center of the country is located in south-central La Pampa province.

The country has a territorial claim over a portion of Antarctica (unrecognized by any other country), where, from 1904, it has maintained a constant presence.

Geographic regions

Source: CIA^[2] Political map of Argentina showing the area it controls. The Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas) are controlled by the United Kingdom but are claimed by Argentina.

The country is traditionally divided into several major geographically distinct regions:

Rivers and lakes

Sailboats on the Uruguay River.

Major rivers in Argentina include the Pilcomayo, Paraguay, Bermejo, Colorado, Río Negro, Salado, Uruguay and the largest river, the Paraná. The latter two flow together before meeting the Atlantic Ocean, forming the estuary of the Río de la Plata. Regionally important rivers are the Atuel and Mendoza in the homonymous province, the Chubut in Patagonia, the Río Grande in Jujuy and the San Francisco River in Salta.

There are several large lakes in Argentina, many of them in Patagonia. Among these are lakes Argentino and Viedma in Santa Cruz, Nahuel Huapi in Río Negro and Fagnano in Tierra del Fuego and Colhué Huapi and Musters in Chubut. Lake Buenos Aires and O'Higgins/San Martín Lake are shared with Chile. Mar Chiquita, Córdoba, is the largest salt water lake in the country. There are numerous reservoirs created by dams. Argentina features various hot springs, such as those at Termas de Río Hondo with temperatures between 89 °C and 65 °C.^[28]

Coastal areas and seas

Argentina has 4,665 km (2,899 mi) of coastline.^[29] The continental platform is unusually wide; in Argentina this shallow area of the Atlantic Ocean is called Mar Argentino. The Argentine Atlantic coast has been a favorite among local vacationers for over a hundred years. The waters are rich in fisheries and suspected of holding important hydrocarbon energy resources. Argentina's coastline varies between areas of sand dunes and cliffs. The two major ocean currents affecting the coast are the warm Brazil Current and the cold Falkland Current (Spanish: corriente antártica or corriente de las Malvinas). Because of the unevenness of the coastal landmass, the two currents alternate in their influence on climate and do not allow temperatures to fall evenly with higher latitude. The southern coast of Tierra del Fuego forms the north shore of the Drake Passage.

Panoramic view of Bristol Beach in the city of Mar del Plata.

Climate

A mild climate typifies the region of the Pampas.

The Andean range over the southern province of Santa Cruz.

Because of longitudinal and elevation amplitudes, Argentina is subject to a variety of climates. As a rule, the climate is predominantly temperate with extremes ranging from subtropical in the north to subpolar in the far south. The north of the country is characterized by very hot, humid summers with mild drier winters, and is subject to periodic droughts. Central Argentina has hot summers with thunderstorms (in western Argentina producing some of the world's largest hail), and cool winters. The southern regions have warm summers and cold winters with heavy snowfall, especially in mountainous zones. Higher elevations at all latitudes experience cooler conditions.

The hottest and coldest temperature extremes recorded in South America have occurred in Argentina. A record high temperature of 49.1 °C (120.4 °F), was recorded at Villa de María, Córdoba on 2 January 1920. The lowest temperature recorded was −39 °C (−38.2 °F) at Valle de los Patos Superior, San Juan, 17 July 1972.

Major wind currents in Argentina include the cool Pampero blowing on the flat plains of Patagonia and the Pampas; following the cold front, warm currents blow from the north in mid and late-winter, creating mild conditions. The Zonda, a hot and dry wind (see also foehn wind), affects west-central Argentina. Squeezed of all moisture during the 6,000 meter descent from the Andes, Zonda winds can blow for hours with gusts up to 120 km/h, fueling wildfires and causing damage; when the Zonda blows (June-November), snowstorms and blizzard (viento blanco) conditions usually affect the higher elevations.

The Sudestada (“southeasterlies”) could be considered similar to the Noreaster, though snowfall is rarely involved (but is not unprecedented). Both are associated with a deep winter low pressure system. The sudestada usually moderates cold temperatures but brings very heavy rains, rough seas and coastal flooding. It is most common in late autumn and winter along the coasts of central Argentina and in the Río de la Plata estuary.

The southern regions, particularly the far south, experience long periods of daylight from November to February (up to nineteen hours) and extended nights from May to August. All of Argentina uses UTC-3 time zone. The country does observe daylight saving time occasionally; the last summertime began at 0:00 30 December 2007 and ended on 0:00 16 March 2008.

Extremities: Argentina's easternmost continental point is northeast of the town of Bernardo de Irigoyen, Misiones (26°15′S 53°38′W / -26.25, -53.633), the westernmost in the Mariano Moreno Range in Santa Cruz (49°33′S 73°35′W / -49.55, -73.583). The northernmost point is located at the confluence of the Grande de San Juan and Mojinete rivers, Jujuy (21°46′S 66°13′W / -21.767, -66.217), and the southernmost is Cape San Pío in Tierra del Fuego (55°03′S 66°31′W / -55.05, -66.517).^[30]

Enclaves and exclaves

There is one Argentine exclave, Martín García Island (co-ordinates 34°11′S 58°15′W / -34.183, -58.25). It is near the confluence of the Paraná and Uruguay rivers, a kilometer (0.62 mi) inside Uruguayan waters, and 3.5 kilometres (2.1 mi) from the Uruguayan coastline near the small town of Martín Chico (itself halfway between Nueva Palmira and Colonia del Sacramento).

An agreement reached by Argentina and Uruguay in 1973 reaffirmed Argentine jurisdiction over the island, ending a century-old dispute. Under the terms of the agreement, Martín García is to be devoted exclusively as a natural preserve. Its area is about 2 square kilometres (500 acres) and its population is about 200 people.

Flora

The ceibo is Argentina's national flower.

Caldén trees in the dry pampas.

Subtropical plants dominate the north, part of the Gran Chaco region of South America. The genus Dalbergia of trees is well disseminated with representatives like the Brazilian Rosewood and the quebracho tree; also predominant are white and black algarrobo trees (prosopis alba and prosopis nigra). Savannah-like areas exist in the drier regions nearer the Andes. Aquatic plants thrive in the wetlands dotting the region.

In central Argentina the humid pampas are a true tallgrass prairie ecosystem. The original pampa had virtually no trees; today along roads or in towns and country estates (estancias), some imported species like the American sycamore or eucalyptus are present. The only tree-like plant native to the pampa is the ombú, an evergreen. The surface soils of the pampa are a deep black color, primarily mollisols, known commonly as humus. This is what makes the region one of the most agriculturaly productive on Earth; however, this is also responsible for decimating much of the original ecosystem, to make way for commercial agriculture. The western pampas receive less rainfall, this dry pampa is a plain of short grasses or steppe.^[31]

Palo borracho (Silk Floss) tree. Species from the baobab family are common in Argentina.

Most of Patagonia in the south lies within the rain shadow of the Andes. The flora, shrubby bushes and plants, is well suited to withstand dry conditions. The soil is hard and rocky, making large-scale farming impossible except along river valleys. Coniferous forests grow in far western Patagonia and on the island of Tierra del Fuego. Conifers native to the region include alerce (Fitzroya cupressoides), ciprés de la cordillera (Austrocedrus chilensis), ciprés de las guaitecas (Pilgerodendron uviferum), huililahuán (Podocarpus nubigenus), lleuque (Prumnopitys andina), mañío hembra (Saxegothaea conspicua) and pehuén (Araucaria araucana), while native broadleaf trees include several species of Nothofagus including coigüe or coihue, lenga (Nothofagus pumilio) and ñire (Nothofagus Antarctica). Other introduced trees present in forestry plantations include spruce, cypress and pine. Common plants are the copihue and colihue (Chusquea culeou).^[32]

In Cuyo, semiarid thorny bushes and other xerophile plants abound. Along the many river oasis, grasses and trees grow in significant numbers. The area presents optimal conditions for the large scale growth of grape vines. In the northwest of Argentina there are many species of cacti. In the highest elevations (above 4,000 m or 13,000 ft), no vegetation grows because of the extreme altitude.

The ceibo flower, of the tree Erythrina crista-galli, is the national flower of Argentina.

Fauna

The puma inhabits the northeast of the country.

Many species live in the subtropical north. Big cats like the jaguar, cougar, and ocelot; primates (howler monkey); large reptiles (crocodiles) and a species of caiman. Other animals include the tapir, peccary, capybara, bush dog, raccoon and various species of turtle and tortoise. There are a wide variety of birds, notably hummingbirds, flamingos, toucans and swallows.

The hornero is one of the national emblems of Argentina.

The central grasslands are populated by the giant anteater, armadillo, pampas cat, maned wolf, mara, cavias and the rhea (ñandú), a flightless bird. Hawks, falcons, herons and tinamous (perdiz, Argentine "false partridges") inhabit the region. There are also pampas deer and pampas foxes. Some of these species extend into Patagonia.

The western mountains are home to different animals. These include the llama, guanaco, vicuña, among the most recognizable species of South America. Also in this region are the fox, viscacha, Andean Mountain Cat, kodkod and the largest flying bird in the New World, the Andean Condor.

Male sea lion in Mar del Plata.

Southern Argentina is home to the cougar, huemul, pudú (the world's smallest deer), and introduced, non-native wild boar.^[32] The coast of Patagonia is rich in animal life: elephant seals, fur seals, sea lions and species of penguin. The far south is populated by cormorants.

The territorial waters of Argentina have abundant ocean life; mammals such as dolphins, orcas, and whales like the southern right whale, a major tourist draw for naturalists. Sea fish include sardines, argentine hakes, dolphinfish, salmon, and sharks; also present are squid and spider crab (centolla) in Tierra del Fuego. Rivers and streams in Argentina have many species of trout and the South American dorado fish. Outstanding snake species inhabiting Argentina include boa constrictors and the very venomous yarará pit viper and South American rattle snake.

Economy

Argentina benefits from abundant natural resources, a highly literate population, an export-oriented agricultural sector, and a diversified industrial base. It was once one of the world's wealthiest nations.^[34] Even during its era of relative decline between 1930 and 1980, the Argentine economy created Latin America's largest proportional middle class;^[19] but this segment of the population has suffered from a succession of economic crises between 1981 and 2002, when the relative decline became absolute.

The Buenos Aires waterfront and three sectors leading the recent economic recovery: construction, foreign trade and tourism.

Newbery Airfield, Buenos Aires. One of two international airports in Buenos Aires, it has helped link Argentina to the world as well as the vast nation to its capital.

Freight rail yard in Rosario. The nations' railways move 25 million metric tons of cargo annually.^[6]

Argentina's economy started to slowly lose ground after 1930^[35] when it entered the Great Depression and recovered slowly, afterwards. Erratic policies helped lead to serious bouts of stagflation in the 1949-52 and 1959-63 cycles and the country lost its place among the world's prosperous nations, even as it continued to industrialize.^[19] Following a promising decade, the economy further declined during the military dictatorship that lasted from 1976 to 1983 and for some time afterwards.^[36]

During this period, the military dictatorship took out large loans with high interest rates from, among others, the IMF and encouraged the private sector to borrow massively from foreign private banks. The country engaged in a disorganized and corrupt financial liberalization that interrupted industrial development and upward social mobility in Argentina; over 400,000 companies of all sizes went bankrupt^[19] and economic decisions made from 1983 through 2001 failed to revert the situation.

Record Foreign debt interest payments, tax evasion and capital flight resulted in a balance of payments crisis that plagued Argentina with serious stagflation from 1975 to 1990. Attempting to remedy this, economist Domingo Cavallo pegged the peso to the U.S. dollar in 1991 and limited the growth in the money supply. His team then embarked on a path of trade liberalization, deregulation and privatization. Inflation dropped and GDP grew by one third in four years;^[6] but external economic shocks and failures of the system diluted benefits, causing the economy to crumble slowly from 1995 until the collapse in 2001. That year and the next, the economy suffered its sharpest decline since 1930.^[6]

In 2002, Argentina had defaulted on its debt, its GDP had shrunk, unemployment reached 25% and the peso had depreciated 70% after being devalued and floated. Careful spending control and heavy taxes on soaring exports, however, allowed the state to regain resources and conduct effective monetary policy.

In 2003, import substitution policies and soaring exports, coupled with lower inflation and expansive economic measures, triggered a surge in GDP. This was repeated in 2004 and 2005, creating millions of jobs and encouraging internal consumption. Capital flight decreased, domestic fixed investment recovered to record levels and foreign investment slowly returned. An influx of foreign currency from exports created a huge trade surplus. The Central Bank has been forced to buy dollars from the market to prevent the Argentine peso from appreciating significantly and thereby undermining competitiveness.

The socio-economic situation has been steadily improving. All major social indicators have benefited strongly^[37] and the economy grew around 9% annually for five consecutive years between 2003 and 2007; however, though official inflation numbers have hovered around 9% since 2006, they have been privately estimated at 12 to 15% that year and projected to be about 25% in 2008,^[38] becoming a contentious issue again. The urban poverty rate dropped to 21% by late 2007 (less than half the peak level observed in 2003, though still above the level prior to 1976).^[39] Income distribution, having improved since 2002, is still considerably unequal.^[40]^[41]

Sectors

Argentina is one of the world's major agricultural producers, ranking third worldwide in production of soybeans, fifth in maize, and eleventh in wheat. In 2007, agricultural output accounted for 9.4% of GDP and nearly one third of all exports. Soy and its byproducts (mainly animal feed and vegetable oils) are major export commodities at 24% of the total. Wheat, maize, sorghum and other cereals totalled 8%.^[37] Cattle-raising is also a major industry, though mostly for domestic consumption. Beef, leather and dairy were 5% of total exports.^[37] Sheep-raising and wool are important in Patagonia, though these activities have declined by half since 1990.^[37]

View of pampas soy fields. Though Argentina is now an industrial and service economy, agriculture still earns more than half the foreign exchange.

Fruits and vegetables made up 4% of exports: apples and pears in the Río Negro valley; oranges and other citrus in the northwest and Mesopotamia; grapes and strawberries in Cuyo and berries in the far south. Cotton and tobacco are major crops in the Gran Chaco, sugarcane and chile peppers in the northwest and olives and garlic in Cuyo. Yerba Mate (Misiones), tomatoes (Salta) and peaches (Mendoza) are grown for domestic consumption. Argentina is the world's fifth-largest wine producer, and fine wine production has taken major leaps in quality. A growing export, total viticulture potential is far from having been met. Mendoza is the largest wine region, followed by San Juan.^[42] As a strike by farmers, protesting an increase in export taxes for their products, began 12 March 2008 and butchers and supermarkets were among the first affected by shortages.^[43] Following a series of failed negotiations and the 16 July defeat of the export tax-hike in the Senate, the strikes and lockouts largely subsided.^[44]

Argentine fisheries, which bring in about a million tons of catch annually,^[37] are centered around argentine hake (50% of the catch), pollack, squid and centolla crab. Forestry has long history in every Argentine region but the pampas, accounting for almost 14 million m³ of roundwood harvests;^[45] elm for cellulose, pine and eucalyptus for furniture, as well as for paper products (1.5 million tons) are all widely harvested. Fisheries and logging each account for 2% of exports.^[37]

Petroleum fuels, oil and natural gas are 12% of Argentina's exports. The most important oil fields lie in Patagonia and Cuyo. An impressive network of pipelines send raw product to Bahia Blanca, center of the petrochemical industry, and to the La Plata-Rosario industrial belt.

Mining is a growing industry. The northwest and San Juan Province are main regions of activity. Coal is mined in Santa Cruz Province. Metals mined include gold, silver, zinc, magnesium, sulfur, tungsten, uranium and, particularly, copper. These exports soared from US$ 200 million in 1996 to US$1.2 billion in 2004^[46] and to over US$ 2 billion in 2007.^[37]

The Yacyretá Dam hydroelectric complex is the second largest in the world.

Manufacturing is the nation's largest single sector in the economy (21.5% of GDP in 2007) and is well-integrated into Argentine agriculture; accounting for nearly two-thirds of exports in all, half the nation's industrial exports are agricultural in nature.^[37] Leading sectors by production value are: food processing; chemicals and pharmaceuticals; motor vehicles, farming equipment and auto parts; iron, steel and aluminum; petroleum refineries; as well as home appliances and industrial machinery. Other manufactures include textiles and leather; plastics and tires; forestry products and publishing; cement and glass; and tobacco products. Nearly half the nation's industries are in and around Buenos Aires, though Córdoba and Rosario are also home to significant industrial centers. Construction permits nationwide neared 16 million m² (170 million ft²) in 2005 and the sector is 6% of GDP. Two-thirds of this total was residential construction.^[37]

The telecommunications sector has been growing at a fast pace, with an important penetration of mobile telephony (more than 75% of the population)^[47] Internet (with more than 16 million people online),^[48] and broadband services (4.1%). Regular telephone (with 9.5 million lines)^[49] and mail are robust.

Argentina produces electricity in large part through well developed natural gas and hydroelectric resources; nuclear energy is also of high importance.^[50] The country is one of the largest producers and exporters (with Canada and Russia) of Cobalt-60, a radioactive isotope widely used in cancer therapy.

Well-known for its productive agriculture, Argentina also benefits from a well-developed services sector.

The service sector is the biggest contributor to total GDP, accounting for 58%. Argentina enjoys a diversified service sector, which includes well-developed social, corporate, financial, insurance, real-estate, transport and communication services, as well as vigorous commercial and tourist trades.

Tourism is increasingly important and provided 8% of economic output (over US$20 billion) in 2006.^[51] Argentines, who have long been active travelers within their own country,^[52] accounted for over 80% of this, though growing international tourism (4.2 million visited Argentina in 2006) contributed almost US$3.4 billion that year.^[51] Stagnant for over two decades, domestic travel has increased robustly in the last few years^[53] and foreigners are flocking to a country seen as affordable, fun because of its variety and safe:^[54] Cosmopolitan Buenos Aires, Rosario and ocean-front Mar del Plata; the Iguazu Falls and colonial Salta; the South American indigenous Jujuy Province and fun-filled Córdoba; the wineries of Mendoza; the ski slopes and lakes near Bariloche and the beaches of Pinamar; Perito Moreno Glacier and Tierra del Fuego.

Transportation

A cargo ship in front of the Rosario-Victoria Bridge.

Light rail in Buenos Aires

Motorway in Buenos Aires

Argentina's infrastructure is advanced compared to other Latin American countries'.^[55] There are over 230,000 km (144,000 mi) of roads (not including private rural roads) of which nearly 70,000 km (45,000 mi) are paved^[56] and 1,575 km (980 mi) are expressways,^[57] many of which are privatized tollways. Having doubled in length in recent years, multilane expressways now connect several main cities and more are now under construction.^[58] Expressways are, however, currently inadequate to deal with local traffic, as 9.2 million motor vehicles are registered nationally as of 2008 (230 per 1000 population).^[59]

The railway network has a total length of 34,059 km (21,170 mi).^[60] After decades of declining service and inadequate maintenance, most intercity passenger services shut down in 1992 when the rail company was privatized and thousands of kilometers of track (excluding the above total) are now in disuse. Intercity rail services are currently being reactivated among several cities and, though also privatized, metro rail services in Buenos Aires have continued; in part thanks to their easy access to the Buenos Aires subways, these continue to be in great demand.

Inaugurated in 1913, the Buenos Aires Metro was the first built in Latin America and the Southern Hemisphere.^[61] It is no longer the most extensive in Latin America; but, its 33 miles of track carry nearly 800,000 passengers, daily.^[6]

Argentina has around 11,000 kilometers of navigable waterways and these carry more cargo than do the country's renown freight railways.^[62] This includes an extensive network of canals, though Argentina is blessed with ample natural waterways, as well; the most significant among these being the Río de la Plata, Paraná, Uruguay, Río Negro and Paraguay rivers.

Water supply and sanitation

Water supply and sanitation in Argentina faces five key challenges: (i) low coverage with higher levels of service provision for its income level; (ii) poor service quality; and (iii) high levels of pollution; (iv) low cost recovery; and (v) unclear allocation of responsibilities between institutions in the sector.

The 2001 Census revealed that, since 1980, very little progress had been made in reducing the prevalence of those without indoor running water or indoor plumbing (about 20% of the population, as of 2001).^[63] Great regional disparities continued to exist, moreover, as the problem affected 2% of those in the city of Buenos Aires; but, in the historically underdeveloped provinces of Formosa and Santiago del Estero, a little over half lacked these amenities.^[63]

Population

Contemporary figures

The National Institute of Statistics and Census of Argentina (INDEC) 2001 census showed the population of Argentina was 36,260,130. It ranks third in South America in total population and 30th globally. The 2008 estimate is 40,677,348. Argentina's population density is 15 persons per square kilometer of land area, well below the world average of 50 persons; the population, however, is not evenly distributed: the city of Buenos Aires has a population density of over 14,000 inhab./km², while Santa Cruz province has fewer than 1 inhab./km². Benefiting from a moderate birth rate since the 1930s,^[64] Argentina is the only nation in Latin America with a net positive migration rate; about +0.4 net immigrants per 1000 locals, yearly.^[65]

Cities and metropolitan areas

Córdoba city centre.

Puerto Madero Docklands, Buenos Aires.

Monument to the Argentine Flag, Rosario.

San Martin Boulevard, Mendoza.

Demographics

Fiesta del Inmigrante or "Immigrants' Festival" celebrates the immigration to Argentina during the 19th and 20th century in the town of Oberá, Misiones.

Ethnicity

Argentina, as with other areas of new settlement such as Canada, Australia or the United States is considered a country of immigrants^[67] and a melting pot of different peoples, both autochthonous and immigrants. Most Argentines are descended from colonial-era settlers and of the 19th and 20th century immigrants from Europe, with around 90 % of Argentina's population being of European descent^[1]^[68] The majority of these European immigrants came from Italy and Spain. An estimated 7% of the population is mestizo.^[1] The last national census, based on self-identification, counted about 600,000 Argentines (1.6 %) of Amerindian heritage.^[69] A further 3-4 % of Argentines were of Arabic or East Asian heritage.^[1]

Following the arrival Spanish colonists, more than 6.2 million Europeans emigrated to Argentina from the mid-19th to mid-20th centuries.^[70] Major contributors included Italy (initially from Piedmont, Veneto and Lombardy; later from Campania and Calabria),^[71] Spain (mostly Galicians and Basques)^[72] and France (mostly to Buenos Aires and Mendoza).^[73] Smaller but significant numbers of immigrants came from Germany and Switzerland (to the Lakes Region of Patagonia and to Córdoba), Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Greece, the United Kingdom, Ireland (to Buenos Aires, Santa Fe and Patagonia; see also English settlement in Argentina) and Portugal. Eastern Europeans were also numerous from Russia, Ukraine, Lithuania and from Central Europe (particularly Poland, Hungary, Romania, Croatia and Slovenia); former President of Argentina Néstor Kirchner is partly of Croatian descent.^[74] Sizable numbers of immigrants also arrived from Balkan countries (Serbia and Montenegro, particularly in Chaco).^[75] There is a large Armenian community and the Chubut Valley has a significant population of Welsh descent.^[76]

Minorities

An Argentine gaucho.

Small but growing numbers of people from East Asia have also settled in Argentina, mainly in Buenos Aires. The first Asian-Argentines were of Japanese descent; Koreans, Vietnamese, and Chinese followed, now at over 60,000.^[77]

The majority of Argentina's Jewish community are Ashkenazi Jews, while about 15–20% are Sephardic groups, primarily Syrian Jews. Argentina's Jewish community is the fifth largest in the world.

Argentina is also home to a large community from the Arab world, made up mostly of immigrants from Syria and Lebanon. Most are Christians of the Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic (Maronite) Churches, with small Muslim and Jewish minorities. Many have gained prominent status in national business and politics, including former president Carlos Menem, the son of Syrian settlers from the province of La Rioja.

The officially recognized indigenous population in the country, according to the "Complementary Survey of Indigenous Peoples" based on 2001 Census data, stands at approximately 402,921 people (about 1 percent of the total population).^[78]

Illegal immigrants

Illegal immigration has been a recent factor in Argentine demographics. Most illegal immigrants come from Bolivia and Paraguay, countries which border Argentina to the north. Smaller numbers arrive from Peru, Ecuador, and Romania.^[79] The Argentine government estimates that 750,000 inhabitants lack official documents and has launched a program called Patria Grande ("Big Homeland")^[80] to encourage illegal immigrants to regularize their status; so far over 670,000 applications have been processed under the program.^[81]

Urbanization

Governor's offices, Tucumán.

Federal courthouse, La Plata.

Argentina's population is highly urbanized; the country's ten largest metro areas are home to half the total population and fewer than one in ten live in rural areas.^[66] About 3 million people live in the autonomous city of Buenos Aires and the Greater Buenos Aires totals 12.8 million (2008), making it one of the largest conurbations in the world. Together with their respective metropolitan areas, the second and third-largest cities in Argentina (Córdoba and Rosario) comprise around 1.3 and 1.2 million inhabitants, respectively; five other metro areas are home to at least half a million people.^[66]

Most European immigrants to Argentina settled in the cities, which offered jobs, education and other opportunities which enabled newcomers to enter the middle class. Many also settled in the growing small towns along the expanding railway system; since the 1930s, many rural workers have moved to the big cities.

The 1990s saw many rural towns become ghost towns when train services ceased and local products manufactured on a small scale were replaced by massive amounts of cheap imported goods. Slums (villas miserias), which have long blighted the outskirts of a number of Argentine cities, expanded during that decade and, as of 2004, were thought to be home to about 750,000 households (four million people),^[82] inhabited by impoverished lower-class urban dwellers, rural migrants from the interior (mainly from the north) and a large number of immigrants from neighbouring countries that settled in Argentine cities between the 1970s and the 1990s; though a significant proportion left during the 2001-2002 crisis, many have returned during the economic recovery that followed.

Many urban areas appear European, reflecting the influence of European immigrants. Many cities are built in a Spanish-grid style around a main square (plaza). A cathedral and important government buildings often face the plaza. The general layout of the cities is called damero (checkerboard), since it is based on a pattern of square blocks, though modern developments sometimes depart from it (the city of La Plata, built at the end of the nineteenth century, is organized as a checkerboard plus diagonal avenues at fixed intervals). The city of La Plata was the first in South America with electric street illumination.^[83]

Culture

Architect Alejandro Bustillo and sculptor Lola Mora's work, Rosario.

Street in Buenos Aires CBD.

Second Empire and Neoclassical architecture, downtown Buenos Aires.

Argentine culture has significant European influences. Buenos Aires, considered by many its cultural capital, is often said to be the most European city in South America, as a result both of the prevalence of people of European descent and of conscious imitation of European styles in architecture. The other big influence is the gauchos and their traditional country lifestyle of self-reliance. Finally, indigenous American traditions (like yerba mate infusions) have been absorbed into the general cultural milieu.

Literature

When I think of what I've lost, I ask "who know themselves better than the blind?" - for every thought becomes a tool. Jorge Luis Borges^[84]

Argentina has a rich history of world-class literature, including one of the twentieth century's most critically acclaimed writers, Jorge Luis Borges. The country has been a leader in Latin American literature since becoming a fully united entity in the 1850s, with a strong constitution and a defined nation-building plan. The struggle between the Federalists (who favored a loose confederation of provinces based on rural conservatism) and the Unitarians (pro-liberalism and advocates of a strong central government that would encourage European immigration), set the tone for Argentine literature of the time.

The ideological divide between gaucho epic Martín Fierro by José Hernández, and Facundo^[85] by Domingo Faustino Sarmiento, is a great example. Hernández, although a federalist, opposed to the centralizing, modernizing, and Europeanizing tendencies. Sarmiento wrote immigration was the only way to save Argentina from becoming subject to the rule of a small number of dictatorial caudillo families, arguing such immigrants would make Argentina more modern and open to Western European influences and therefore a more prosperous society.

Argentine literature of that period was fiercely nationalist. It was followed by the modernist movement, which emerged in France in the late nineteenth century, and this period in turn was followed by vanguardism, with Ricardo Güiraldes as an important reference. Jorge Luis Borges, its most acclaimed writer, found new ways of looking at the modern world in metaphor and philosophical debate and his influence has extended to writers all over the globe. Borges is most famous for his works in short stories such as Ficciones and The Aleph.

Argentina has produced many more internationally noted writers, poets and intellectuals: Juan Bautista Alberdi, Roberto Arlt, Enrique Banchs, Silvina Bullrich, Adolfo Bioy Casares, Eugenio Cambaceres, Julio Cortázar, Esteban Echeverría, Leopoldo Lugones, Eduardo Mallea, Ezequiel Martínez Estrada, Tomás Eloy Martínez, Victoria Ocampo, Manuel Puig, Ernesto Sabato, Osvaldo Soriano, Alfonsina Storni, and María Elena Walsh. A number of Argentine caricaturists have also become influential: Roberto Fontanarrosa's grotesque characters captured life's absurdities with quick-witted comments and Quino (born Joaquin Salvador Lavado), has entertained readers the world over, while dipping into current events with soup-hating Mafalda and her comic strip gang.

Film and theatre

Gran Rex Cinema, Buenos Aires.

Argentina is a major producer of motion pictures. The world's first animated feature films were made and released in Argentina, by cartoonist Quirino Cristiani, in 1917 and 1918. Argentine cinema enjoyed a 'golden age' in the 1930s through the 1950s with scores of productions, many now considered classics of Spanish-language film. The industry produced actors who became the first movie stars of Argentine cinema, often tango performers such as Libertad Lamarque, Floren Delbene, Tito Lusiardo, Tita Merello, Roberto Escalada and Hugo del Carril.

More recent films from the "New Wave" of cinema since the 1980s have achieved worldwide recognition, such as The Official Story (La historia official), Nine Queens (Nueve reinas), Man Facing Southeast (Hombre mirando al sudeste), Son of the Bride (El hijo de la novia), The Motorcycle Diaries (Diarios de motocicleta), or Iluminados por el fuego. Argentine composer Gustavo Santaolalla, Eugenio Zanetti and Luis Enrique Bacalov all are Academy Award winners. Although rarely rivaling Hollywood-type movies in popularity, local films are released weekly and widely followed in Argentina and internationally. Even low-budget films have earned prizes in cinema festivals (such as Cannes). The city of Mar del Plata organizes its own film festival, while Buenos Aires has its independent cinema counterpart. The per capita number of screens is one of the highest in Latin America, and viewing per capita is the highest in the region. A new generation of Argentine directors has caught the attention of critics worldwide.^[86] Additionally, Argentina is a major center of cinema, it is compared to European countries in terms of people who attend movie theaters. An example of this was Spider-Man 3 which took in 466,586 the first day a record in Argentina. In Italy it took in 400,000 and Germany 486,571, breaking all records for first day release.^[87]

The Buenos Aires Teatro Colón, one of the world's great opera houses.

Buenos Aires is one of the great capitals of theater. The Teatro Colon is a national landmark for opera and classical performances. Built at the ending of XIX century, Teatro Colon's acoustic is considered the best in the world. Currently it is undergoing major refurbishment, in order to preserve its outstanding sound characteristics, the French-romantic style, the impressive Golden Room (a minor auditorium targeted to Chamber Music performances) and the museum at the entrance.

Enrico Caruso, Beniamino Gigli, Felix Weingartner, Artur Nikisch, Richard Strauss, Arturo Toscanini, Igor Stravinsky, Paul Hindemith, Camille Saint-Saëns, Manuel de Falla, Aaron Copland, Krzysztof Penderecki, Gian-Carlo Menotti, Wilhelm Furtwängler, Herbert von Karajan, Tullio Serafin, Gino Marinuzzi, Albert Wolff, Víctor De Sabata, Leonard Bernstein, Mstislav Rostropovich, Sir Malcolm Sargent, Karl Böhm, Fernando Previtali, Sir Thomas Beecham, Ferdinand Leitner, Lorin Maazel, Igor Markevitch, Bernard Haitink, Zubin Mehta, Marek Janowsky, Aldo Ceccato, Riccardo Muti, Kurt Masur, Michel Corboz, Franz-Paul Decker, Riccardo Chailly, Sir Simon Rattle, Claudio Abbado and René Jacobs are among the artists, composers and conductors who performed in this opera house.

Besides the Teatro Colón (one of the great opera houses of the world), with its program of national and international caliber, Calle Corrientes, or Corrientes Avenue, is synonymous with the art. It is dubbed 'the street that never sleeps', and sometimes referred to as the Broadway of Buenos Aires.^[88] Many great careers in acting, music, and film have begun in its many theaters. The Teatro General San Martín is one of the most prestigious along Corrientes Avenue; the Teatro Nacional Cervantes is designated the national theater of Argentina. Another important theater is the Independencia in Mendoza. Florencio Sanchez and Griselda Gambaro are famous Argentine playwrights. Julio Bocca is one of the great ballet dancers of the modern era.

Painting and sculpture

Font of the Nereids (1903) by Lola Mora, a student of Auguste Rodin's.

Perhaps one of the most enigmatic figures of Argentine culture is Oscar Agustín Alejandro Schulz Solari, aka Xul Solar, whose watercolor style and unorthodox painting media draws large crowds at museums worldwide; he also 'invented' two imaginary languages. The works of Candido Lopez (in Naïve art style), Emilio Pettoruti (cubist), Antonio Berni (neo-figurative), Fernando Fader (impressionism), Gyula Kosice (constructivism) and Guillermo Kuitca (abstract) are appreciated internationally.

Benito Quinquela Martín is considered to be the quintessential 'port' painter, for which the city of Buenos Aires and the working class and immigrant-bound La Boca neighborhood, in particular, was excellently suited. A similar environment inspired Adolfo Bellocq, whose lithographs have been influential since the 1920s. Today, Lucio Fontana and Leon Ferrari are acclaimed sculptors and conceptual artists. Ciruelo is a world-famous fantasy artist and sculptor and Eduardo Mac Entyre's geometric designs have influenced advertisers worldwide since the 1970s.

Birth, Marriage, Death in the UK

Order a Birth Certificate

Order a Marriage Certificate

Order a Death Certificate

Argentina

Births, Marriages, Deaths

Contents