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"Catholic Church" redirects here. For other uses, see Catholic Church (disambiguation).

The Roman Catholic Church, officially known as the Catholic Church,^[1]^[2] is the world's largest Christian church representing over half of all Christians and one-sixth of the world's population.^[3]^[4] It is made up of one Western church (the Latin Rite) and 22 Eastern Catholic churches, divided into 2,782 jurisdictional areas around the world. The Church looks to the Pope, currently Benedict XVI, as its highest human authority in matters of faith, morality and Church governance.^[5] The Church community is composed of an ordained ministry and the laity. Some religious communities allow lay members or associates like the Dominicans, Carmelites, Franciscans, Salesians and many others.^[6]

The Catholic Church defines its mission as spreading the message of Jesus Christ, administering the sacraments and exercising charity.^[7] In carrying out its mission, the Church operates social programs and institutions throughout the world. These include schools, universities, hospitals, missions and shelters, as well as Catholic Relief Services, Caritas Internationalis and Catholic Charities that help the poor, families, the elderly and the sick.^[8]

Through apostolic succession, the Church and many historians believe it to be the continuation of the Christian community founded by Jesus in his consecration of Saint Peter.^[9]^[10]^[11] The Church has defined its doctrines through various ecumenical councils, following the example set by the first Apostles in the Council of Jerusalem.^[12]^[13] On the basis of promises that Jesus made to his apostles, it believes that it is guided by the Holy Spirit and so protected from falling into doctrinal error .^[14]^[15]^[16] Catholic faith is summarized in the Nicene Creed and detailed in the Catechism of the Catholic Church.^[17] Formal Catholic worship is ordered by the liturgy, which is regulated by Church authority. The Eucharist, one of seven Church sacraments and a key part of every Catholic Mass, is the center of Catholic worship.

With a nearly two thousand year history, the Church is the world's oldest and largest institution.^[18] From at least the 4th century, it has played a prominent role in the history of Western civilization.^[19] In the 11th century, the Eastern, Orthodox Church and the Western, Catholic Church split, largely over disagreements regarding papal primacy. Eastern churches, which maintained or later re-established communion with Rome, form the Eastern Catholic Churches. In the 16th century, partly in response to the Protestant Reformation, the Church engaged in a substantial process of reform and renewal, known as the Counter-Reformation.

The Catholic Church maintains that it is the "one, holy, catholic and apostolic Church" founded by Jesus, but acknowledges that the Holy Spirit can make use of Christian communities separated from itself to bring people to salvation.^[20] The Church teaches that it is called by the Holy Spirit to work for unity among all Christians—a movement known as ecumenism.^[21] Modern challenges facing the Church include the rise of secularism and opposition to its pro-life stance on abortion, contraception and euthanasia.^[22]

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Origin and mission

This detail of a fresco (1481–82) by Pietro Perugino in the Sistine chapel shows Jesus giving the keys of heaven to Saint Peter.

The Catholic Church traces its foundation to Jesus and the Twelve Apostles. It sees the bishops of the Church as the successors of the apostles and the pope in particular as the successor of Peter, the leader of the apostles.^[23]^[24] Catholics cite Jesus' words in the Gospel of Matthew to support this view: "... you are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church ... I will give you the keys to the kingdom of heaven. Whatever you bind on earth shall be bound in heaven; whatever you loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven."^[5]^[25]^[15] According to Catholic belief, the coming of the Holy Spirit upon the apostles in an event known by Christians as Pentecost brought this promised "church" fully into the world.^[24]

Some scholars agree that the Catholic Church was founded by Jesus and that the historical record confirms that it was considered a Christian doctrinal authority from its beginning.^[11]^[9] Some cite a letter from Pope Clement I to the church in Corinth (c. 95) as evidence of a presiding Roman cleric who exercised authority over other churches.^[26] Others acknowledge the existence of a Christian community in Rome and that Peter and Paul "lived, preached and died" there^[27] but aren't certain that there was a ruling bishop in the Roman church in the first century, and question the concept of apostolic succession.^[28]

The Church believes that its mission is founded upon Jesus' command to his followers to spread the faith across the world:^[11] "Go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, teaching them to observe all that I have commanded you: and Lo, I am with you always, until the close of the age".^[29]^[30]^[31] Pope Benedict XVI summarized this mission as a threefold responsibility to proclaim the word of God, celebrate the sacraments, and exercise the ministry of charity.^[32] As part of its ministry of charity the Church runs Catholic Relief Services, Catholic Charities, Caritas Internationalis, Catholic schools, universities, hospitals, shelters and ministries to the poor, as well as ministries to families, the elderly and the marginalized.^[8]

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Beliefs

The Catholic Church is a trinitarian Christian church whose beliefs are summarized in the Nicene Creed^[33] and detailed in the Catechism of the Catholic Church.^[17]^[34] While the Nicene Creed is recited at Catholic Sunday Masses, it is also the central statement of belief of most major Christian denominations as well.^[33]^[35] Eastern Orthodox Christians hold beliefs that are quite similar to those of Catholics, differing from them mainly with regard to papal infallibility, the filioque clause and the immaculate conception of Mary.^[36]^[37] Protestant churches vary in their beliefs, but they generally differ from Catholics regarding the pope, church tradition, the Eucharist and issues pertaining to grace, good works and salvation.^[38] The five solas, composed by Martin Luther in the 16th century, were one attempt to express these differences.^[39]

Over the centuries, Catholic teachings have been refined and clarified by councils of the Church convened by Church leaders at important points throughout history.^[13] The first such council, the Council of Jerusalem, was convened by the apostles around the year 50;^[12] the most recent was the Second Vatican Council, which closed in 1965.^[40]

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Teaching authority, seven sacraments, different rites

A 19th-century painting by Carl Heinrich Bloch depicts Jesus preaching the Sermon on the Mount.

Based on these promises that Jesus made to his apostles, "the gates of the netherworld shall not prevail against [the church]",^[15] and "... when He comes, the Spirit of truth, He will guide you to all truth".^[41] the Church believes that it is guided by the Holy Spirit and so protected from falling into doctrinal error.^[42]^[5] It teaches that the Holy Spirit reveals God's truth through Sacred Scripture, Sacred Tradition and the Magisterium. The sacred scriptures consist of the 73 books of the Catholic Bible. These are made up of those contained in the Greek version of the Old Testament—known as the Septuagint^[43]—and the 27 New Testament writings found in the Codex Vaticanus and listed in Athanasius' Thirty-Ninth Festal Letter.^[44] Sacred Tradition consists of those teachings believed by the Church to have been handed down since the time of the Apostles.^[42] Sacred Scripture and Sacred Tradition are collectively known as the "deposit of faith". These are in turn interpreted by the Magisterium, or the teaching authority of the Church and includes infallible pronouncements of the pope,^[45] pronouncements of ecumenical councils, and those of the college of bishops acting in union with the pope to define truths or to condemn interpretations of scripture believed to be false.^[45]

According to the Catechism, Jesus instituted seven sacraments and entrusted them to the Church.^[46] These are Baptism, Confirmation, the Eucharist, Penance, Anointing of the Sick, Holy Orders and Holy Matrimony. Sacraments are visible rituals which Catholics see as providing God's grace to all those who receive them with the proper disposition (ex opere operato).^[47]^[48] Differing liturgical traditions, or rites, exist throughout the worldwide Church. These reflect historical and cultural diversity rather than a diversity in beliefs.^[49] The most commonly used is the Western or Latin rite. Others are the Byzantine rite, the Alexandrian or Coptic rite, the Syriac, Armenian, Maronite and Chaldean rites.

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God the Father, original sin and Baptism

Guido Reni's Archangel Michael (1636) shows Michael—one of three archangels—defeating Lucifer.

Catholic belief that God is the source and creator of nature and all that exists,^[50] is expressed in the opening statement of the Nicene Creed: "We believe in one God, the Father, the Almighty, maker of heaven and earth, of all that is seen and unseen ...". The Church perceives God as a loving and caring entity who is directly involved in the world and in people's lives^[51] and who desires his creatures to love him and to love each other.^[52]^[53] Before the creation of mankind, however, the scriptures teach that God made spiritual beings called angels. In an event known as the "fall of the angels", a number of them chose to rebel against God and his reign.^[54] The leader of this rebellion has been called "Lucifer", "Satan" and the devil among other names. The sin of pride, considered one of seven deadly sins, is attributed to Satan for wishing to be equal to God.^[55] One of these fallen angels is believed to have tempted the first humans, Adam and Eve, whose act of original sin brought suffering and death into the world.

This event is known as the Fall of Man and according to Catholic belief, left humanity isolated from their original state of intimacy with God.^[56]^[57] The Catechism states that the description of the fall described in Genesis 3 uses figurative language, but affirms "... a deed that took place at the beginning of the history of man" and resulted in "a deprivation of original holiness and justice" that makes each person "subject to ignorance, suffering, and the dominion of death: and inclined to sin".^[54] The Church believes that people can be cleansed of original sin and all personal sins through Baptism.^[58] This sacramental act of cleansing admits one as a full member of the natural and supernatural Church and is only conferred once in a person's lifetime.^[58]

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Jesus, sin and Penance

Modern confessional in the Church of the Holy Name, Dunedin, New Zealand. The penitent may kneel on the kneeler or sit in a chair facing the priest (not shown)

In the messianic texts of Old Testament, Christians believe God promises to send his people a savior.^[59] whom they believe to be Jesus. The Nicene Creed states that he is "... the only begotten son of God, ... one in being with the Father. Through him all things were made ...". In an event known as the Incarnation, the Church teaches that God descended from heaven for the salvation of humanity, became man through the power of the Holy Spirit and was born of a virgin Jewish girl named Mary. Jesus' mission on earth is believed to have included giving people his word and example to follow, as recorded in the four Gospels.^[60] The Church teaches that following the example of Jesus helps believers to become closer to him, and therefore to grow in true love, freedom, and the fullness of life.^[61]^[62] Sinning is considered the opposite to following Jesus, robbing people of their resemblance to God and turning their souls away from his love^[63] Examples of sin include failure to obey the Ten Commandments, failing to love God, or failing to love other people. Sins range from the less serious venial sins, to more serious mortal sins which end a person's relationship with God.^[64]^[63]

Through the passion of Jesus and his crucifixion, the Church teaches that all people have an opportunity for forgiveness and freedom from sin, and so can be reconciled to God.^[59]^[65] John the Baptist, respected by the Church as a prophet, called Jesus "the Lamb of God who takes away the sin of the world"^[66] in reference to the ancient Jewish practice of offering sacrificial lambs to God to obtain some greater good. By reconciling with God and following Jesus' words and deeds, the Church believes one can enter the Kingdom of God which is not a place but a state of being defined by the Church as "... the reign of God over people's hearts and lives."^[67]^[68]

After a person has been Baptised, the sacrament of Penance (Confession) is the means by which Catholics believe they can obtain forgiveness for subsequent sin and receive God's grace and assistance not to sin again. Catholics believe Jesus gave the apostles special authority to forgive sins in God's name based on his words to his disciples in the Gospel of John 20:21–23.^[69] A penitent confesses his sins to the priest, who may then offer advice. After the priest has imposed a particular penance to be performed, the penitent then prays an act of contrition and the priest administers absolution, formally forgiving the person of his sins.^[70] He is forbidden under penalty of excommunication to reveal any sin or disclosure heard under the seal of confession. Penance helps prepare Catholics before they can licitly receive the sacraments of Confirmation and the Eucharist.^[71]^[72]

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Holy Spirit and Confirmation

Bernini's stained glass window in St. Peter's Basilica depicts the Holy Spirit as a dove, a common motif in Christian art, referencing John the Baptist's proclamation that he saw the Holy Spirit descend upon Jesus at his baptism "like a dove".

Jesus told his apostles that after his death and resurrection he would send them the "Advocate", the "Holy Spirit", who " ...will teach you everything and remind you of all that (I) told you".^[73]^[74] In the Gospel of Luke, Jesus told his disciples "If you then, who are evil, know how to give good gifts to your children, how much more will the heavenly Father give the Holy Spirit to those who ask him!"^[75]

The Nicene Creed states that the Holy Spirit is one with God the Father and God the Son. Thus the Church teaches that receiving the Holy Spirit is an act of receiving God.^[76] Through the sacrament of Confirmation, Catholics ask for and believe they receive the Holy Spirit. Confirmation is sometimes called the "sacrament of Christian maturity" and is believed to increase and deepen the grace received at Baptism.^[75] Spiritual graces or gifts of the Holy Spirit may include the wisdom to see and follow God's plan, as well as judgment, love, courage, knowledge, reverence and rejoicing in the presence of God.^[77] The corresponding fruits of the Holy Spirit are love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness and self control.^[77]

To be licitly confirmed, Catholics must be in a state of grace, in that they cannot be conscious of having committed a mortal sin. They must also have prepared spiritually for the sacrament, chosen a sponsor or godparent for spiritual support, and selected a saint to be their special patron and intercessor.^[75] Baptism in the Eastern rites, including infant baptism, is immediately followed by the reception of Confirmation and the Eucharist.^[78]

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Nature of the Church and social teaching

Extreme Unction (Anointing of the Sick) by Rogier Van der Weyden, a detail of his work The Seven Sacraments (1445)

Catholic belief holds that the Church " ...is the continuing presence of Jesus on earth."^[79] Jesus told his disciples to "Remain in me, as I remain in you ... I am the vine, you are the branches."^[80] In Catholic interpretation, the term "Church" refers to the people of God, who abide in Jesus and who, " ...nourished with the Body of Christ, become the Body of Christ."^[81] Catholic teaching maintains that the Church exists simultaneously on earth (Church militant), in purgatory (Church suffering), and in heaven (Church triumphant); thus Mary and all other saints are alive and part of the living Church.^[82] This unity of the Church in heaven and on earth is the "Communion of Saints".^[83]^[84]

While the Catholic Church believes and teaches that it is the "one, holy, catholic and apostolic Church" founded by Jesus,^[85] it also holds that the Holy Spirit can work through other churches to bring people to salvation.^[24] In its apostolic constitution Lumen Gentium, the Church acknowledges that the Holy Spirit is active in diverse Christian churches and communities, and that Catholics are called to work for unity among all Christians.^[86]

The Church operates numerous social ministries throughout the world but teaches that individual Catholics are required to practice spiritual and corporal works of mercy as well. Corporal works of mercy include feeding the hungry, welcoming strangers, immigrants or refugees, clothing the naked, taking care of the sick and visiting those in prison. Spiritual works require the Catholic to share their knowledge with others, to give advice to those who need it, comfort those who suffer, have patience, forgive those who hurt them, give correction to those who need it and pray for the living and the dead.^[8] In conjunction with the work of mercy to visit the sick, the Church offers the sacrament of Anointing of the Sick, performed only by a priest who will anoint with oil the head and hands of the ill person and pray a special prayer for them while laying on hands.^[87]

Church teaching on works of mercy and the new social problems of the industrial era led to the development of Catholic social teaching. Emphasizing human dignity, it criticizes elements of both capitalism and socialism^[88]^[89] and commits Catholics to the welfare of others.^[8]

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Final judgment and afterlife

The Last Judgement, by Hieronymus Francken II (c. 1610)

Belief in an afterlife is central to Catholic teaching. "We look for the resurrection of the dead and the life of the world to come," is the final statement of the Nicene Creed. The Church teaches that the soul of each individual will be judged by Jesus immediately after death and receive a particular judgment based on the deeds of that person's earthly life.^[90] Chapter 25:35–46 of the Gospel of Matthew underpins the Catholic belief that a day will also come when Jesus will sit in a universal judgment of all mankind.^[8]^[91] The Church teaches that this final judgment will bring an end to human history and mark the beginning of a new and better heaven and earth ruled by God in righteousness.^[92]

There are three states of afterlife in Catholic belief. Purgatory is a temporary condition for the purification of souls who, although saved, are not free enough from sin to enter directly into heaven. It is a state requiring penance and purgation of sin through God's mercy aided by the prayers of others.^[90] Heaven is a time of glorious union with God and a life of unspeakable joy that lasts forever.^[90] Finally, those who chose to live a sinful and selfish life, did not repent, and fully intended to persist in their ways are sent to hell, an everlasting separation from God.^[93] The Church teaches that no one is condemned to hell without having freely decided to reject God and his love.^[90] He predestines no one to hell and no one can determine whether anyone else has been condemned.^[90] Catholicism teaches that through God's mercy a person can repent at any point before death and be saved "like the good thief who was crucified next to Jesus".^[90]^[94]

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Prayer and worship

Catholic liturgy is regulated by Church authority^[95] and consists of the Eucharist and Mass, the other sacraments, and the Liturgy of the Hours. At a minimum, the Catechism requires every Catholic to attend Mass on Sundays, confess sins at least once a year, receive the Eucharist at least during Easter season, observe days of fasting and of abstinence as established by the Church, and help provide for the Church's needs.^[96] While all Catholics are expected to participate in the liturgical life of the Church, individual or communal prayer and devotions, while encouraged, are a matter of personal preference.^[97]

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Eucharist

The Eucharist (Holy Communion), is celebrated at each Mass and is the center of Catholic worship^[98]^[99] The Church teaches that the Old Testament promise of God's salvation for all peoples was fulfilled when Jesus established a New Covenant with humanity through the institution of the Eucharist at the Last Supper - a covenant that was consummated with his sacrifice on the cross. The Church believes that the bread and wine brought to the altar at each Mass are changed through the power of the Holy Spirit into the true body and the true blood of Christ through transubstantiation and that by consuming these, believers become part of the Body of Christ.^[100]^[101] In the Gospel of John, Jesus states "I am the bread of life: he who comes to me shall never hunger, and he who believes in me shall never thirst."^[102] Explaining this statement, Pope Benedict XVI notes that the sacrament of the Eucharist is the combination of the Word of God coming to us (bread), and the sacrifice of Jesus (blood).^[103] He further explains that the Word of God points out "the way that leads to life" while the sacrifice of Jesus atones for sins; the combination of the two make possible "a new life in God and with God."^[103] Catholicism teaches that just as God's first covenant or solemn agreement with Moses and the Hebrew people was sealed with the blood of sacrificial animals, his new covenant with humanity was sealed with the blood of Jesus.^[100] The words of institution for this sacrament are found in the three synoptic Gospels of Matthew,^[104] Mark,^[105] and Luke,^[106] as well as in I Corinthians;^[107] "Then he took the bread, said the blessing, broke it, and gave it to them, saying, 'This is my body, which will be given for you; do this in memory of me.' "^[108] "Then he took a cup, gave thanks, and gave it to them, saying, 'Drink from it, all of you, for this is my blood of the covenant, which will be shed on behalf of many for the forgiveness of sins.' "^[109] The New Covenant is, according to Catholic teaching, celebrated and renewed in the Eucharist.^[100]

Pope Benedict XVI celebrates Holy Mass at the canonization of Frei Galvão in São Paulo, Brazil on May 11, 2007.

The most common celebration of the Eucharist, the Latin rite or ordinary form, is separated into two parts, the Liturgy of the Word and the Liturgy of the Eucharist.^[110] According to professor Alan Schreck, in its main elements and prayers, the Catholic Mass celebrated today "bears striking resemblance" to the form of the Mass described in the Didache and First Apology of Justin Martyr in the late 1st and early 2nd centuries.^[111]^[112] The celebration of the Eucharist in the Eastern Catholic Churches is termed Divine Liturgy. Variations exist in this liturgy between the different Eastern Churches that reflect different cultural traditions.

An alternate or extraordinary form of Mass, called the Tridentine Mass, is celebrated primarily in Latin. Originating after the Council of Trent, it reaffirms that the Mass is the same sacrifice of Jesus' death as the one he suffered on Calvary, which is in opposition to Protestant belief.^[113] Although this form was superseded by the ordinary as the primary form after the Second Vatican Council, it continued to be offered by an indult since Pope John Paul II's 1988 motu proprio, Ecclesia Dei^[114] and can now be said by any Roman rite priest according to Pope Benedict XVI's 2007 motu proprio, Summorum Pontificum.^[115]

Because the Church teaches that Christ is present in the Eucharist,^[116] there are strict rules about its celebration and reception. The ingredients of the bread and wine used in the Mass are specified and Catholics must abstain from eating for one hour before receiving Communion.^[117] Those who are conscious of being in a state of mortal sin are forbidden from this sacrament unless they have received absolution through the sacrament of Penance.^[117] According to Church belief, receiving the Eucharist forgives venial sins.^[117] Because the Church respects their celebration of the Mass as a true sacrament, intercommunion with the Eastern Orthodox in "suitable circumstances and with Church authority" is both possible and encouraged.^[118] Although the same is not true for Protestant churches, in circumstances of grave necessity, Catholic ministers may give the sacraments of Eucharist, Penance and Anointing of the Sick to Protestants if they freely ask for them, truly believe what the Catholic Church teaches regarding the sacraments, and have the proper disposition to receive them.^[118] Catholics may not receive communion in Protestant churches because of their different beliefs and practices regarding Holy Orders and the Eucharist.^[119]

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Liturgy of the Hours and the liturgical year

In the Gospel of Luke, Jesus instructs his disciples to "pray always".^[120] The Liturgy of the Hours, or Divine Office, is the Church's effort to respond to this request. It is considered to be an extension of the celebration of the Mass and is the official daily liturgical prayer of the Church.^[121] It makes particular use of the Psalms as well as readings from the New and Old Testament, and various prayers.^[121] It is an adaptation of the ancient Jewish practice of praying the Psalms at certain hours of the day or night. Catholics who pray the Liturgy of the Hours use a set of books issued by the Church that has been called a breviary. By canon law, priests and deacons are required to pray the Liturgy of the Hours each day.^[122] Religious orders often make praying the Liturgy of the Hours a part of their rule of life; the Second Vatican Council encouraged the Christian laity to take up the practice.^[121]^[123]

The liturgical year is the annual calendar of the Catholic Church. The Church sets aside certain days and seasons of each year to recall and celebrate various events in the life of Christ. The Byzantine liturgical year, like the former imperial calendar, starts on 1 September, while in the Western Church the liturgical year begins with Advent, the time of preparation for both the celebration of Jesus' birth, and his expected second coming at the end of time. Christmastide follows, beginning on the night of 24 December (Christmas Eve), and ending with the feast of the baptism of Jesus. Lent is the period of purification and penance that in the Latin church begins on Ash Wednesday and ends on Holy Thursday. (In the Byzantine Catholic churches, "Great Lent" begins on Clean Monday and, counting the Sundays as part of the forty days of Lent, ends on Lazarus Saturday, being followed immediately by Great and Holy Week.) The Holy Thursday evening Mass of the Lord's Supper marks the beginning of the Easter Triduum which includes Good Friday, Holy Saturday and Easter Sunday. These days recall Jesus' last supper with his disciples, death on the cross, burial and resurrection. The seven-week liturgical season of Easter immediately follows the Triduum climaxing at Pentecost. This recalls the descent of the Holy Spirit upon Jesus' disciples after the Ascension of Jesus. The rest of the liturgical year is known as Ordinary Time.^[124]

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Devotional life, prayer, Mary and the saints

Mary, Joseph, and the child Jesus during the flight into Egypt are depicted in a panel from Albrecht Dürer's Seven Sorrows of the Virgin (c. 1494–97).

In addition to the Mass, the Catholic Church considers prayer to be one of the most important elements of Christian life. The Church considers personal prayer a Christian duty, one of the spiritual works of mercy and one of the principal ways its members nourish a relationship with God.^[125] The Catechism identifies three types of prayer: vocal prayer (sung or spoken), meditation and contemplative prayer. Quoting from the early church father John Chrysostom regarding vocal prayer, the Catechism states, "Whether or not our prayer is heard depends not on the number of words, but on the fervor of our souls."^[126] Meditation is prayer in which the "mind seeks to understand the why and how of Christian life, in order to adhere and respond to what the Lord is asking."^[126] Contemplative prayer is being with God, taking time to be close to and alone with him.^[126] Three of the most common devotional prayers of the Catholic Church are The Lord's Prayer, the Rosary and Stations of the Cross.^[127] These prayers are most often vocal, yet always meditative and contemplative. Adoration of the Blessed Sacrament is a common form of contemplative prayer, whereas Benediction is a common vocal method of prayer. Lectio divina, which means "sacred reading", is a form of meditative prayer. The Church encourages patterns of prayer intended to develop into habitual prayer. This includes such daily prayers as grace at meals, the Rosary, or the Liturgy of the Hours, as well as the weekly rhythm of Sunday Eucharist and the observation of the year-long liturgical cycle.^[126]

Prayers and devotions to the Virgin Mary and the saints are a common part of Catholic life but are distinct from the worship of God.^[128] Explaining the intercession of saints, the Catechism states that the saints "... do not cease to intercede with the Father for us ... so by their fraternal concern is our weakness greatly helped."^[84]^[128] The Church holds Mary, as ever Virgin and Mother of God". in special regard. She is believed to have been conceived without original sin, and was assumed into heaven. These dogmas, focus of Roman Catholic Mariology, are considered infallible. She is honored with many titles such as Queen of Heaven. Pope Paul VI called her Mother of the Church, because by giving birth to Christ, she is considered to be the spiritual mother to each member of the Body of Christ.^[129] Because of her influential role in the life of Jesus, prayers and devotions, such as the Rosary, the Hail Mary, the Salve Regina and the Memorare are old Catholic practices.^[127] Pilgrimages to Marian shrines such as Lourdes and Fátima are popular devotions. The Church celebrates several liturgical Marian feasts throughout the Church Year.^[130]

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Church organization and community

Although the Church considers Jesus to be its ultimate spiritual head, as an earthly organization its spiritual head and leader is the pope.^[131] The pope governs from Vatican City in Rome, a sovereign state of which he is also the civil head of state.^[132] Each pope is elected for life by the College of Cardinals, a body composed of bishops and priests who have been granted the status of Cardinal by previous popes. The cardinals, who also serve as papal advisors, may select any male member of the Church to reign as pope, but if not already ordained as a bishop, such ordination must occur before the candidate can take papal office.^[133] The pope is assisted in the administration of the Church by the Roman Curia, or civil service. The Church community is governed according to formal regulations set out in the Code of Canon Law. The official language of the Church is Latin, however Italian is the working language of the Vatican administration.^[134]

Worldwide, the Catholic Church comprises a Western or Latin and 22 Eastern Catholic autonomous particular churches. The Latin Church divides into jurisdictional areas known as dioceses, or eparchies in the Eastern Church. Each is headed by a bishop, patriarch or eparch, appointed by the pope. By 2007, including both dioceses and eparchies, there were 2,782 sees.^[135] Each diocese is divided into individual communities called parishes, which are staffed by one or more priests.^[136] The community is made up of ordained members and the laity. Members of religious orders such as nuns, friars and monks are considered lay members unless individually ordained as priests.^[137]

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Ordained members and Holy Orders

Lay men become ordained through the sacrament of Holy Orders, and form a three-part hierarchy of bishops, priests and deacons. As a body the College of Bishops are considered to be the successors of the apostles.^[138]^[139] Along with the pope, the College includes all the cardinals, patriarchs, primates, archbishops and metropolitans of the Church. Only bishops are able to perform the sacrament of Holy Orders, and Confirmation is ordinarily reserved to them as well (though priests may do it under special circumstances).^[140] While bishops are responsible for teaching, governing and sanctifying the faithful of their diocese, priests and deacons have these same responsibilities at a more local level, the parish, subordinate to the ministry of the bishop. While all priests, bishops and deacons preach, teach, baptize, witness marriages and conduct wake and funeral services, only priests and bishops may celebrate the Eucharist or administer the sacraments of Penance and Anointing of the Sick.^[141]

A priestly ordination at the abbey of Fontgombault in France

Although married men may become deacons, only celibate men are ordained as priests in the Latin Rite.^[142]^[143] Clergy who have converted from other denominations are sometimes excepted from this rule.^[144] The Eastern Catholic Churches ordain both celibate and married men.^[145]^[146] All rites of the Catholic Church maintain the ancient tradition that, after ordination, marriage is not allowed. Men with transitory homosexual leanings may be ordained deacons following three years of prayer and chastity, but homosexual men who are sexually active, or those who have deeply rooted homosexual tendencies cannot be ordained.^[147]

All programs for the formation of men to the Catholic priesthood are governed by Canon Law.^[148] They are designed by national bishops' conferences such as the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops and vary slightly from country to country. The conferences consult Vatican documents such as Pastores Dabo Vobis, Novo Millennio Ineunte, Optatam Totius and others to create these programs.^[149] In some countries, priests are required to have a college degree plus another four years of full time theological study in a seminary. In other countries a degree is not strictly required, but seminary education is longer. Candidates for the priesthood are also evaluated in terms of human, spiritual and pastoral formation.^[150] The sacrament of Holy Orders is always conferred by a bishop through the laying-on of hands, following which the newly ordained priest is formally clothed in his priestly vestments.^[140]

Because the twelve apostles chosen by Jesus were all male, only men may be ordained in the Catholic Church.^[151] While some consider this to be evidence of a discriminatory attitude toward women,^[152] the Church believes that Jesus called women to different yet equally important vocations in Church ministry.^[153] Pope John Paul II, in his apostolic letter Christifideles Laici, states that women have specific vocations reserved only for the female sex, and are equally called to be disciples of Jesus.^[154] This belief in different and complementary roles between men and women is exemplified in Pope Paul VI's statement "If the witness of the Apostles founds the Church, the witness of women contributes greatly towards nourishing the faith of Christian communities".^[154]

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Lay members, Marriage

The laity consists of those Catholics who are not ordained clergy. Saint Paul compared the diversity of roles in the Church to the different parts of a body—all being important to enable the body to function.^[6] The Church therefore considers that lay members are equally called to live according to Christian principles, to work to spread the message of Jesus, and to effect change in the world for the good of others. The Church calls these actions participation in Christ's priestly, prophetic and royal offices.^[155] Marriage, the single life and the consecrated life are lay vocations. The sacrament of Holy Matrimony in the Latin rite is the one sacrament not conferred by a priest or bishop. The couple desiring marriage act as the ministers of the sacrament while the priest or deacon serves as witness.^[140] In Eastern rites, the priest or bishop administers the sacrament after the spouses grant mutual consent.^[156] Church law makes no provision for divorce, however annulment may be granted in strictly defined circumstances. Since the Church condemns all forms of artificial birth control, married persons are expected to be open to new life in their sexual relations.^[157] Natural family planning is approved.^[158]

Lay ecclesial movements consist of lay Catholics organized for purposes of teaching the faith, cultural work, mutual support or missionary work.^[159] Such groups include: Communion and Liberation, Neocatechumenal Way, Regnum Christi, Opus Dei, Life Teen and many others.^[159] Some non-ordained Catholics practice formal, public ministries within the Church.^[160] These are called lay ecclesial ministers, a broad category which may include pastoral life coordinators, pastoral assistants, youth ministers and campus ministers.^[161]

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Religious orders

Teresa of Ávila, shown in a 1615 painting by Peter Paul Rubens, was a Carmelite nun honored as a Doctor of the Church.

Both the ordained and the laity may enter the religious or consecrated life—either as monks or nuns if cloistered, or friars and sisters if not. A candidate takes vows confirming their desire to follow the three evangelical counsels of chastity, poverty and obedience.^[162]

The majority of those wishing to enter the consecrated life join one of the religious institutes which are also referred to as monastic or religious orders. They follow a common rule such as the Rule of St Benedict and agree to live under the leadership of a superior.^[163]^[164] They usually live together in a community but individuals may be given permission to live as hermits, or to reside elsewhere, for example as a serving priest or chaplain.^[165] Examples of religious institutes include the Sisters of Charity, Dominicans, Franciscans, Carmelites, Cistercians, Marist Brothers, Paulist Fathers and the Society of Jesus, but there are many others.^[162] Tertiaries are laypersons who live according to the third rule of orders such as the Franciscans or Carmelites, either within a religious community or outside.^[159] Although all tertiaries make a public profession, participate in the good works of their order and can wear the habit, they are not bound by public vows unless they live in a religious community. The Church recognizes several other forms of consecrated life, including secular institutes, societies of apostolic life and consecrated widows and widowers.^[162] It also makes provision for the approval of new forms.^[166]

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Membership

Membership of the Catholic Church is attained through Baptism.^[167] For those baptized as children, First Communion is a particular rite of passage when, following instruction, they are allowed to receive the sacrament of the Eucharist for the first time. Christians baptized outside of the Catholic Church or those never baptized may be received by participating in a formation program such as the Rite of Christian Initiation of Adults.^[168]^[169] In all rites, after going through formation and making a profession of faith, candidates receive the sacraments of initiation at the Easter vigil on Holy Saturday.^[168]

A person can excommunicate themselves or be excommunicated by committing particularly grave sins.^[170]^[171] Examples include violating the seal of confession (committed when a priest discloses the sins heard in the sacrament of Penance), persisting in heresy, creating schism, becoming an apostate or having an abortion.^[172] Throwing away or retaining for a sacrilegious purpose consecrated sacramental bread or wine received during the Eucharist is considered an excommunicable offense.^[173] Excommunication is the most severe ecclesiastical penalty because it prevents a person from validly receiving any Church sacrament. It can only be forgiven by the pope, the bishop of the diocese where the person resides, or priests authorized by him.^[174]

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Catholic institutions, personnel and demographics

St. Theresa School in Coral Gables, FL is one of over 125,000 worldwide Catholic schools.

In 2000, worldwide Catholic institutions totalled 408,637 parishes and missions, 125,016 primary and secondary schools, 1,046 universities, 5,853 hospitals, 8,695 orphanages, 13,933 homes for the elderly and handicapped and 74,936 dispensaries, leprosaries, nurseries and other institutions.^[175] Many of these institutions are at least partially staffed by religious sisters who comprise over two thirds of all Church personnel. As of 2000, there were 769,142 religious sisters and 194,454 religious priests and brothers in Africa, the Americas, Asia, Europe and Oceania.^[176] In addition, there were 3,475 bishops, 914 archbishops, 183 cardinals, 405,178 diocesan and religious priests, 27,824 permanent deacons and 110,583 diocesan and religious seminarians (men studying for the priesthood).^[177]

Church membership in 2007 was 1.131 billion people;^[178] a substantial increase over the 1970 figure of 654 million.^[179] It is the largest Christian church encompassing over half of all Christians, one sixth of the world's population and is the largest organized body of any world religion,^[4]^[180] and known for its ability to use its transnational ties and organizational strength to bring significant resources to needy situations.^[181] Although the number of practicing Catholics worldwide is not reliably known,^[182] membership is growing particularly in Africa and Asia.^[3]

Mother Teresa established homes for the dying in India to care for people who were otherwise left to die on the streets.

Some parts of Europe and the Americas have experienced a priest shortage in recent years as the number of priests has not increased in proportion to the number of Catholics.^[183] The Latin American Church, known for its large parishes where the parishioner to priest ratio is the highest in the world, considers this to be a contributing factor in the rise of pentecostal and evangelical Christian denominations in the region.^[184] Secularism has seen a steady rise in Europe yet the Catholic presence there remains strong as evidenced by a large presence of Catholic institutions and personnel.^[184]

With a high number of adult baptisms, the Church is growing faster in Africa than anywhere else.^[185] Challenges faced include suppression of non-Islamic religious practices by Muslims in Sudan and a high rate of AIDS in Sub-Saharan Africa where the Church participates in efforts to help patients and reduce the spread of disease.^[186] Africa has three Catholic primary and secondary schools for every one parish reflecting the greater need for basic education there.^[187]

The Church in Asia is a significant minority among other religions yet its vibrance is evidenced by the large proportion of women religious, priests and parishes to total Catholic population.^[184] From 1975-2000, total Asian population grew by 61% with an Asian Catholic population increase of 104%.^[188] Challenges faced include oppression by communist countries like North Korea where it is forbidden, and China where all seminaries were closed and all priests expelled under the regime of Mao Zedong during the 1950s.^[189]

Oceania is overwhelmingly Christian with Catholic the majority denomination. There, the Church faces challenges in reaching indigenous populations where over 715 different languages are spoken.^[184] Of the 1.5 billion worldwide Catholics, 12% reside in Africa, 50% in the American continent, 10% are in Asia, 27% in Europe and 1% live in Oceania.^[190]

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Cultural influence

Aztecs were practicing human sacrifice, which ended with the spread of Christianity to the region by Catholic missionaries.^[191]

The cultural influence of the Catholic Church has been vast, particularly upon western society. The most significant cultural influence was its role in the spread of the Christian religion throughout the world, a process that ended practices like human sacrifice, slavery, infanticide and polygamy in Christian lands.^[192] Historians note that Catholic missionaries, popes, laymen and religious were among the leaders in the campaign against slavery, an institution that has existed in almost every worldwide culture.^[193]^[194] Christianity improved the status of women by condemning female infanticide (as well as all other forms), divorce, incest, polygamy and marital infidelity of both men and women.^[195]

St. Louis University, a Catholic institution and one of the oldest schools in the western United States is where the son of Sacajawea received an education. At a time when Indian children in the US were not permitted to attend school with whites the Church was the only institution to offer them an education.

The Church has frequently been criticized for the house arrest of Galileo over the geocentrism controversy of the 1600s. However historians of science, including non-Catholics such as J.L. Heilbron,^[196] A.C. Crombie, David Lindberg,^[197] and Thomas Goldstein,^[198] have argued that the Church had a significant, positive influence on the development of civilization. They hold that, not only did monks save and cultivate the remnants of ancient civilization during the barbarian invasions of Europe, but that the Church promoted learning and science through its sponsorship of universities and Catholic schools throughout the world. Catholic schools comprise the world's largest non-governmental school system, educating over 50 million children of all incomes on every continent.^[199] Catholic hospitals, missions and orphanages have likewise catered to significant populations of the world's poor.

Historians credit the Catholic Church for the development Western art, citing the Church's consistent opposition to Byzantine iconoclasm and for inspiring Romanesque, Gothic and Renaissance art. The Church sponsored great Renaissance artists like Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci.^[200] Catholic monks developed the first forms of musical notation, and consequently an enormous body of religious music has been composed for the Catholic Church through the ages. This led directly to the emergence and development of the European tradition of classical music, and all its derivatives. The Church is also credited for the development of Romanesque and Gothic architecture.^[201] The Baroque style in art, music and architecture was also developed by the Church as a means of religious expression that was stirring and emotional, intended to stimulate religious fervor.^[202]

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History

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Roman Empire

The Catholic Church considers that it began on Pentecost when, according to scriptural accounts, the apostles received the Holy Spirit and emerged from hiding following the death and resurrection of Jesus to preach and spread his message.^[203]^[204] According to historians, the apostles traveled to northern Africa, Asia Minor, Arabia, Greece, and Rome to found the first Christian communities,^[203]^[205]^[206] over 40 of which had been established by the year 100.^[205]^[206] At first, Christians continued to worship alongside Jewish believers, but within twenty years of Jesus' death, Sunday was being regarded as the primary day of worship^[207] because it was revered as the day of Jesus' Resurrection.^[208] From as early as the first century, the Church of Rome was recognized as a doctrinal authority because it was believed that the Apostles Peter and Paul had led the Church there.^[11]^[209]^[210]

Early Christians were martyred as entertainment in the Colosseum in Rome, a short distance from the Vatican Hill. Jean-Léon Gérôme, 1883.

The apostles convened the first Church council, the Council of Jerusalem, in or around the year 50 to reconcile differences concerning the evangelization of Gentiles.^[12] Although competing forms of Christianity emerged early and persisted into the fifth century, there was broad doctrinal unity within the mainstream churches.^[211] From the year 100 onward, teachers like Ignatius of Antioch and Irenaeus defined Catholic teaching in stark opposition toGnosticism.^[212] The Roman Church retained the practice of meeting in ecumenical councils to ensure that any internal doctrinal differences were quickly resolved.^[13] In the first few centuries of its existence, the Church formed its teachings and traditions into a systematic whole under the influence of theological apologists such as Pope Clement I, Justin Martyr and Augustine of Hippo.^[213]

Because early Christians refused to offer sacrifices to the Roman gods or to defer to Roman rulers as gods, they were frequently subject to persecution.^[214] This began under Nero in the first century and culminated in the great persecution of Diocletian and Galerius, which was seen as a final attempt to wipe out Christianity.^[215] In spite of these persecutions Christianity continued to spread and was eventually legalized in 313 under Constantine I's Edict of Milan.^[216]

In 325, the First Council of Nicaea convened in response to the threat of Arianism and formulated the Nicene Creed as a basic statement of Christian belief.^[217] Emperor Constantine I commissioned the first Basilica of St. Peter and several other sites of lasting importance to Christianity.^[218] By this time, the altar as the focal point of each church, the sign of the cross, and the liturgical calendar had been established.^[219] By 380, Christianity was the official religion of the Empire.^[220] In subsequent decades a series of Ecumenical councils codified critical elements of the Church's theology. The Council of Rome in 382 listed the accepted books of the Old and New Testament and in 391 this Biblical canon, was translated into the common language of Latin creating the Vulgate.^[221] The Councils of Ephesus in 431, and Chalcedon two decades later, clarified the nature of Jesus' incarnation.^[222]^[223] These definitions sparked Monophysite disagreements which led to the first of the Oriental Orthodox Churches breaking away from the Catholic Church.^[13]

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Early Middle Ages

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476, the Catholic faith competed with Arian Christianity for the conversion of the barbarian tribes.^[224] The 496 conversion of Clovis I, pagan king of the Franks, marked the beginning of a steady rise of the Catholic faith in the West.^[225]

Saint Benedict, father of Western monasticism and author of Rule of St Benedict. Detail from fresco by Fra Angelico, c. 1437–46.

In 530, Saint Benedict wrote his monastic Rule, which became a blueprint for the organization of monasteries throughout Europe.^[226] The new monasteries preserved classical craft and artistic skills while maintaining intellectual culture within their schools, scriptoria and libraries. As well as providing a focus for spiritual life, they functioned as agricultural, economic and production centers, particularly in remote regions, becoming major conduits of civilization.^[227] From 590 Pope Gregory the Great dramatically reformed church practice and administration, launching renewed missionary efforts.^[228] As the Visigoths and Lombards moved from Arianism toward Catholicism,^[225] missionaries such as Augustine of Canterbury, Saint Boniface, Willibrord and Ansgar took Catholic Christianity to the Germanic, Irish and Slavic peoples of northern Europe. Later missions reached the Vikings and other Scandinavians.^[229]

In the early 700s, under the direction of the Eastern, Byzantine emperors, iconoclasts ordered the destruction of all religious images. Iconodules supported by the pope and the Western Church were strongly opposed to this.^[230]^[231] The dispute was resolved in 787 when the Second Council of Nicaea ruled in favor of icons.^[232] In 800, continuing disagreements with the east culminated when the pope crowned Charlemagne Holy Roman Emperor in the west. Charlemagne attempted to unify Western Europe through the common bond of Christianity, creating an improved system of education and establishing unified laws. However imperial interest created a problem for the church as succeeding emperors sought to impose increasingly tight control over the popes.^[233]^[234] Disagreements between the Eastern and Western churches arose again in 858, when Patriarch Ignatius of Constantinople, favored by the pope, was deposed for the more extreme Photios.^[235] The pope declared the election of Photios invalid and excommunicated him. The consequent long-running dispute added to the growing alienation between the churches.^[230]^[236]

After a dispute over whether Constantinople or Rome held jurisdiction over the church in Sicily, the two Churches mutually excommunicated each other in 1054, resulting in the East-West Schism.^[237] The Western (Latin) branch of Christianity has since become known as the Catholic Church, while the Eastern (Greek) branch became known as the Eastern Orthodox Church.^[238]^[239] The Second Council of Lyon (1274) and the Council of Florence (1439) both failed to heal the schism.^[240] Some Eastern churches have subsequently reunited with the Catholic Church.^[239]^[241] In spite of attempts at reunification, the two churches remain in schism, although excommunications were mutually lifted in 1965.^[242]

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High Middle Ages

The Cluniac reform of monasteries that had begun in 910 sparked widespread monastic growth and renewal.^[243] Monasteries introduced new crops, developed technologies such as metallurgy, and fostered the creation and preservation of literature. They could also function as credit establishments promoting economic growth. Monasteries, convents and cathedrals still operated virtually all schools and libraries.^[244]^[245] After 1100, some cathedral schools split into lower, grammar, schools and higher schools for advanced learning. First in Bologna, then at Paris and Oxford, some of these higher schools developed into universities, the direct ancestors of the modern Western institutions.^[246] Notable theologians such as Thomas Aquinas worked to explain the connection between human experience and faith.^[247] His Summa Theologica was a key intellectual achievement in its synthesis of Aristotelian thought and Christianity.^[247]

Pope Urban II at the Council of Clermont (1095), where he preached the First Crusade; later manuscript illumination of c. 1490

In 1095, Byzantine emperor Alexius I appealed to Pope Urban II for help against Muslim invasions.^[248] Urban launched the First Crusade, hoping to bring about reconciliation with Eastern Christianity.^[249]^[250] Fueled by reports of Muslim atrocities against Christians, most notably by the caliph Al-Hakim,^[251] the series of military campaigns that followed were intended to return the Holy Land to Christian control. The goal was not permanently realized, and episodes of brutality committed by the armies of both sides left a legacy of mutual distrust between Muslims and Western and Eastern Christians.^[252] The sack of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade left Eastern Christians embittered, despite the fact that Pope Innocent III had expressly forbidden any such attack.^[253] In 2001, Pope John Paul II apologized to the Orthodox Christians for the sins of Catholics including the sacking of Constantinople in 1204.^[254]

Cistercian monk Bernard of Clairvaux exerted great influence over the eight new monastic orders founded in the 12th century, including the Military Knights of the Crusades.^[255] His influence led Pope Alexander III to begin reforms that would lead to the establishment of canon law.^[256] In the following century, new mendicant orders were founded by Francis of Assisi and Dominic de Guzmán which brought consecrated religious life into urban settings.^[257]

Twelfth-century France witnessed the widespread growth of Catharism, a dualistic belief in extreme asceticism which taught that all matter was evil, accepted suicide and denied the value of Church sacraments. After a papal legate was murdered by the Cathars in 1208, Pope Innocent III declared the Albigensian Crusade.^[258] Abuses committed during the crusade caused Innocent III to informally institute the first papal inquisition to prevent future abuses and to root out the remaining Cathars.^[259]^[260] Formalized under Gregory IX, this Medieval inquisition executed an average of three people per year for heresy at its height.^[260]^[261] Over time, other inquisitions were launched by the Church or secular rulers to prosecute heretics, to respond to the threat of Muslim invasion or for political purposes.^[262] The accused were encouraged to recant their heresy and those who did not could be punished by penance, fines, imprisonment, torture or execution by burning.^[263]^[262] In the 14th century, King Philip IV of France created an inquisition for his suppression of the Knights Templar.^[261] King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella formed an inquisition in 1480, originally to deal with distrusted ex-Jewish and ex-Muslim converts.^[264] Over a 350-year period, the Spanish Inquisition executed between 3,000 and 4,000 people,^[265] representing around two percent of those accused.^[266] The inquisition played a major role in the final expulsion of Islam from the kingdoms of Sicily and Spain.^[267] In 1482 Pope Sixtus IV condemned the excesses of the Spanish Inquisition, but Ferdinand ignored his protests.^[268] Historians note that for centuries Protestant propaganda and popular literature exaggerated the horrors of the inquisitions..^[269]^[270]^[271]^[272] According to Edward Norman, this propaganda "identified the entire Catholic Church ... with [the] occasional excesses" wrought by secular rulers.^[270] Over all, one percent of those tried by the inquisitions received death penalties, leading many scholars to consider them rather lenient when compared to the secular courts of the period.^[265]^[269]

A growing sense of church-state conflicts marked the 14th century. Clement V in 1309 became the first of seven popes to reside under French influence in the fortified city of Avignon.^[273] What became known as the Avignon Papacy ended in 1378 when, at the urging of Catherine of Siena and others who esteemed Rome as the see of Peter, the papacy finally returned to Rome.^[274]^[275] With the death of Pope Gregory XI later that year, the papal election was strongly disputed. Supporters of Italian and French-backed candidates were unable to come to agreement, resulting in the Western schism in which for 38 years, separate claimants to the papal throne sat in Rome and Avignon. Efforts at resolution further complicated the issue when a third, compromise, pope was elected in 1409.^[276] The matter was finally resolved in 1417 at the Council of Constance where the cardinals called upon all three claimants to the papal throne to resign, and held a new election naming Martin V pope.^[276]

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Late Medieval and Renaissance

In the late 15th and early 16th centuries, European explorers and missionaries spread Catholicism to the Americas, Asia, Africa and Oceania. Pope Alexander VI, had awarded colonial rights over most of the newly discovered lands to Spain and Portugal.^[277] Under the patronato system, however, state authorities, not the Vatican, controlled all clerical appointments.^[278] In December 1511, Antonio de Montesinos, a Dominican friar, openly rebuked the Spanish rulers of Hispaniola for their "... cruelty and tyranny ... in dealing with" the American natives".^[279]^[280]^[281] King Ferdinand enacted the Laws of Burgos and Valladolid in response. However enforcement was lax, and while some blame the Church for not doing enough to liberate the Indians, others point to the Church as the only voice raised on behalf of indigenous peoples.^[282] The issue resulted in a crisis of conscience in 16th-century Spain.^[280]^[281] The reaction of Catholic theologians, such as Bartolome de Las Casas and Francisco de Vitoria, led to debate on the nature of human rights^[281] and the birth of modern international law.^[283]^[284]

In 1521 Spanish explorer Ferdinand Magellan made the first Catholic converts in the Philippines.^[285] The following year, the first Franciscan missionaries arrived in Mexico, establishing schools, model farms and hospitals. When some Europeans questioned whether the Indians were truly human and worthy of baptism, Pope Paul III in the 1537 bull Sublimis Deus confirmed that "their souls were as immortal as those of Europeans" and they should neither be robbed nor turned into slaves.^[286]^[287]^[288] Over the next 150 years, missions expanded into southwestern North America.^[289] Native people were often legally defined as children, and priests took on a paternalistic role, sometimes enforced with corporal punishment.^[290] Elsewhere, Portuguese missionaries under the Spanish Jesuit Francis Xavier evangelized in India and Japan.^[291] By the end of the 16th century tens of thousands of Japanese followed Roman Catholicism. Church growth came to a halt in 1597 under the Shogun Tokugawa Iemitsu who, in an effort to isolate the country from foreign influences, launched a severe persecution of Christians.^[292] Despite enforced isolation, a minority Christian population survived into the 19th century.^[292]^[293]

Whitby Abbey England, one of hundreds of European monasteries destroyed during the Reformation.

In 1509 Europe, the most famous scholar of the age, Erasmus, wrote The Praise of Folly, a work which captured a widely held unease about corruption in the Church.^[294] The Council of Constance, the Council of Basel and the Fifth Lateran Council attempted to reform these internal Church abuses but were thwarted because of the simony and nepotism practiced in the Renaissance Church of the 15th and early 16th centuries.^[295] As a result, rich, powerful and worldly men like Roderigo Borgia (Pope Alexander VI) were able to win election to the papacy.^[295]^[296] In 1517, Martin Luther included his Ninety-Five Theses in a letter to several bishops.^[297]^[298] His theses protested key points of Catholic doctrine as well as the sale of indulgences.^[297]^[298] Huldrych Zwingli, John Calvin, and others further criticized Catholic teachings. These challenges developed into the Protestant Reformation.^[299]^[223] In Germany, the reformation led to a nine-year war between the Protestant Schmalkaldic League and the Catholic Emperor Charles V. In 1618 a far graver conflict, the Thirty Years' War, followed,^[300] which resulted in an approximate reduction of thirty percent of urban and fifty percent of rural inhabitants in Central Europe, the destruction of 18.310 villages and 1629 cities, creating damages far greater than in World War One and World War Two.^[301]^[302]^[303] In France, a series of conflicts termed the French Wars of Religion were fought from 1562 to 1598 between the Huguenots and the forces of the French Catholic League. King Henry IV's 1598 Edict of Nantes, which granted civil and religious toleration to Protestants was hesitantly accepted by Pope Clement VIII.^[300]^[304]

The English Reformation, initiated by Henry VIII, began as more of a political than a theological dispute.^[305] His Acts of Supremacy, which made the English monarch head of the English church, established the Church of England. Then, beginning in 1536, some 825 monasteries throughout England, Wales and Ireland were dissolved and Catholic churches were confiscated.^[306]^[307] Henry VIII executed those like Thomas More who disagreed with his Act of Supremacy. He later reaffirmed Catholic doctrines such as transubstantiation and the celibacy of the clergy in the Six Articles of 1539, in opposition to the Calvinist and Lutheran views that were dominant among the Protestants of continental Europe.^[307]^[308]^[309] However this affirmation did not extend to papal authority or the dissolution of monasteries, and when he died in 1547 all monasteries, friaries, convents of nuns and shrines were gone.^[307]^[310] Mary I of England reunited the Church of England with Rome and, against the advice of the Spanish ambassador, persecuted Protestants during the Marian Persecutions.^[311]^[312] After some provocation, the following monarch, Elizabeth I enforced the Act of Supremacy. This prevented Catholics from becoming members of professions, holding public office, voting or educating their children.^[311]^[313] Executions of Catholics under Elizabeth I, who reigned much longer, then surpassed the Marian persecutions^[311] and persisted under subsequent English monarchs.^[314] Penal laws were also enacted in Ireland^[315] but were less effective than in England.^[311]^[316] In part because the Irish people associated Catholicism with nationhood and national identity, they resisted persistent English efforts to eliminate the Catholic Church.^[311]^[316] The Catholic Emancipation Act of 1829 and subsequent actions of the English parliament eventually helped to eliminate some of the oppressive anti-Catholic laws throughout the British empire.^[316]

Melk Abbey—adjoining Wachau Valley, Lower Austria—exemplifies the Baroque style.

The Catholic Church responded to doctrinal challenges and abuses highlighted by the Reformation at the Council of Trent (1545–1563), which became the driving-force of the Counter-Reformation. Doctrinally, it reaffirmed central Catholic doctrines such as transubstantiation, and the requirement for love and hope as well as faith to attain salvation.^[317] It also made important structural reforms, most importantly by improving the education of the clergy and laity, and consolidating the central jurisdiction of the Roman Curia.^[318]^[317]^[319] New religious orders were founded, including the Theatines, Barnabites and Jesuits some of which became the great missionary orders of later years.^[320] The writings of figures such as Teresa of Avila, Francis de Sales and Philip Neri spawned new schools of spirituality within the Church.^[321] To popularize Counter-Reformation teachings, the Church encouraged the Baroque style in art, music and architecture.

In 1582 Pope Gregory XII introduced the Gregorian Calendar to replace the increasingly inaccurate Julian Calendar, however the reform was resisted for centuries in many Protestant countries.^[322]

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Enlightenment

Toward the latter part of the 17th century, Pope Innocent XI reformed abuses by the Church, including simony, nepotism and the lavish papal expenditures that had caused him to inherit a papal debt of 50,000,000 scudi.^[323] Balancing the books, he then promoted missionary activity across the world, tried to unite Europe against Turkish invasion, and condemned religious persecution of all kinds.^[323] In 1685 King Louis XIV of France issued the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, ending a century-long experiment in religious toleration. This and other religious conflicts of the Reformation era provoked a backlash against Christianity. While Louis XIV endorsed Gallicanism as a means to weaken and control the church,^[323] Jansenism and the attacks of thinkers such as Denis Diderot challenged fundamental doctrines of the Church^[324] which helped spawn the violent anti-clericalism of the French Revolution. Direct attacks on the wealth of the Church and associated grievances led to the wholesale nationalisation of church property and attempts to establish a state-run church.^[325] Large numbers of priests refused to take an oath of compliance to the National Assembly, leading to the Church being outlawed and replaced by a new religion of the worship of "Reason".^[325] In this period, all monasteries were destroyed, 30,000 priests were exiled and hundreds more were killed.^[325] When Pope Pius VI sided against the revolution in the First Coalition, Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Italy. The pope was imprisoned by French troops, and died in 1799 after six weeks of captivity. To win popular support for his rule, Napoleon later re-established the Catholic Church in France through the Concordat of 1801.^[326] All over Europe, the end of the Napoleonic wars signaled by the Congress of Vienna, brought Catholic revival, renewed enthusiasm, and new respect for the papacy following the depredations of the previous era.^[327]

Church from the Indian settlement of San Ignacio Miní, Argentina

In the Americas, Franciscan priest Junípero Serra founded a series of new missions in cooperation with the Spanish government and military.^[328] These missions brought grain, cattle and a new way of living to the Indian tribes of California. San Francisco was founded in 1776 and Los Angeles in 1781. However, in bringing Western civilization to the area, the missions have been held responsible for the loss of nearly a third of the native population, primarily through disease.^[329]

In South America, Jesuits missionaries protected native peoples from enslavement by establishing semi-independent settlements called reductions. Pope Gregory XVI, challenging Spanish and Portuguese sovereignty, appointed his own candidates as bishops in the colonies, condemned slavery and the slave trade in 1839 (papal bull In Supremo Apostolatus), and approved the ordination of native clergy in spite of government racism.^[330]

In China, however, the Chinese Rites controversy led the Kangxi Emperor to outlaw Christian missions in 1721.^[331] This controversy added fuel to growing criticism of the Jesuits who were seen to symbolize the independent power of the Church, and in 1773, European rulers united to force Pope Clement XIV to dissolve the order.^[332] The Jesuits were eventually restored in the 1814 papal bull Sollicitudo omnium ecclesiarum.^[333]

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Industrial age

The latter part of the 19th century saw important church developments. In 1870, the First Vatican Council affirmed the doctrine of papal infallibility when exercised in specifically defined pronouncements.^[334]^[335] Controversy over this and other issues resulted in a small breakaway movement called the Old Catholic Church.^[336] Later, the Industrial Revolution brought growing concern about the deteriorating working and living conditions of urban workers. In 1891, Pope Leo XIII published the encyclical Rerum Novarum which set out Catholic social teaching in terms that rejected socialism but advocated the regulation of working conditions, the establishment of a living wage and the right of workers to form trade unions.^[337] By the close of the 19th century, new technologies and superior weaponry had allowed European powers to gain control of most of the African interior.^[338] The new rulers introduced a cash economy which required African people to become literate, and so created a great demand for schools. At the time, the only possibility open to Africans for a western education was through Christian missionaries.^[338] Catholic missionaries followed colonial governments into Africa, and built schools, hospitals, monasteries and churches.^[338]

In Latin America, a succession of anti-clerical regimes came to power beginning in the 1830s.^[339] One such regime emerged in Mexico in 1860. Church properties were confiscated and basic civil and political rights were denied to religious orders and the clergy. More severe laws called Calles Law during the rule of atheist Plutarco Elías Calles eventually led to the "worst guerilla war in Latin American History", the Cristero War.^[340] Between 1926 and 1934, over 3,000 priests were exiled or assassinated.^[341]^[342] In an effort to prove that "God would not defend the Church", Calles ordered "hideous desecration of churches ... there were parodies of (church) services, nuns were raped and any priests captured ... were shot ...".^[340] Calles was eventually deposed^[340] and despite the persecution, the Church in Mexico continued to grow. A 2000 census reported that 88 percent of Mexicans identify as Catholic.^[343] In 1954, under the regime of General Juan Perón, Argentina saw extensive destruction of churches, denunciations of clergy and confiscation of Catholic schools as Perón attempted to extend state control over national institutions.^[344] Cuba, under atheist Fidel Castro, succeeded in reducing the Church's ability to work by deporting the archbishop and 150 Spanish priests, discriminating against Catholics in public life and education and refusing to accept them as members of the Communist Party.^[345] The subsequent flight of 300,000 people from the island also helped to diminish the Church there.^[345] A European version of violent anti-clerical persecution took place in 1936 Spain. Because priests and nuns were symbols of conservatism, they were murdered in "large numbers" during the Spanish Civil War by republicans and anarchists.^[346] Confiscation of Church properties and restrictions on people's religious freedoms have generally accompanied secularist and Marxist-leaning governmental reforms.^[347]

Cardinal Pacelli (the future Pope Pius XII) attacked by Nazi papers as a friend of Jews and western communists.

In the 1937 encyclical Mit brennender Sorge, drafted by the future Pope Pius XII,^[348] Pope Pius XI warned Catholics that antisemitism is incompatible with Christianity.^[349] Read from the pulpits of all German Catholic churches, it described Hitler as an insane and arrogant prophet and was the first official denunciation of Nazism made by any major organization.^[350] Nazi persecution of the Church in Germany then began by "outright repression" and "staged prosecutions of monks for homosexuality, with the maximum of publicity."^[351] When Dutch bishops protested against deportation of Jews in Holland, the Nazi's responded with even more severe measures.^[350] In Poland, the Nazis murdered over 2500 monks and priests while even more were sent to concentration camps.^[351] The Priester-Block (priests barracks) in Dachau lists 2600 Roman Catholic priests.^[349] Stalin staged an even more severe persecution at almost the same time.^[351] After World War II historians such as David Kertzer accused the Church of encouraging centuries of anti–semitism, and Pope Pius XII of not doing enough to stop Nazi atrocities.^[352] Prominent members

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